AX
i rip
'i'THlTirP I Vn riAVOTHI!
, ILH
\
GRAMMAR,
OF THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE,
Accompanied by Several Original Diagrams, Exhibiting an Occular Illustration!
of some of the Most Difficult Principles of the Science of Lan-
guage; also, an Extensivo Glossary of the Deriva- I
I tion of the Principal Scientific Terms |
Used in this Work.
i '
! IN TWO PARTS, I
FOR THh: USE OF EVFJIiY OXF WHO MAY W/slI TO ADOPT If
r.Y
REV. PROF. BRANTLY YORK.
THIRD EDITION
Mll/rUM IX I'AHVO.
"That's vil(>. ; sluuiKl wo a parents fault adore,
Aud eiT because our lather's erred before?"
RALi:n;u :
W. L. POM K HOY
1 S(V_».
DUKE
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
Treasure "Room
...^ . AN
g^nabtical, lllnstratibt, anb (JLonstrttctih
GRi^MMA-R
OF
THE ENG,LISH LANGUAGE
ACCOMPANIED BT SEVERAL ORIGINAL DIAGRAMS, EXHIBITING AN OCCU-
LAR ILLUSTRATION OF SOME OF THE MOST DIFFICULT PRINCIPLES
OP THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE ; ALSO, AN EXTENSIVE GLOS-
SARY OP THE DERIVATION OP THE PRINCIPAL SCIEN-
TIFIC TERMS USED IN THIS WOPvK,
IN TWO PARTS,
FOR THE USE OF EVERY ONE WHO MAY WISH TO ADOPT IT,
BY
REV. PROF. BRANTLEY YORK.
THIRD EDITION.
MULTUM IN PARVO.
That's Tile ; should we a parent's fault adore,
And err because our father's erred before f "
RALEIGH :
W L. POMEROY. PUBLISHER
1862.
[Copy Right secured in the C. S. District Court of Pamlico.]
A., al. GORMAN, PRi"STS«'
Y 1 1-?
TO
^[iDse tnlia [lauc hern itiiiirr mij 3ni5triutinn
WITHIN THf: LAST TWENTY YEARS.
eOME or WUOM ARE FlI.Ll.NG
IMPORTANT STATIONS IN T H i: CHURC
AND TUr
VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF INSTRUCT'ON,
This Work is Most Rc^pcclfulJy Ded cutcd
BY THE AUTHOR.
33i»4-4.8
TESTIMONIALS.
Frnm Pi's. Morris (^ Wood,
The undersigned having been solicited by the Rev. B. York to Micni
the examination of the pupils of his lecturing school, held at Midway
Chapel, feel no hesitation ia saying, that the proficiency made by liis .stu-
dents so far exceeded our most sanguine expectation that we are fully pre- •
pared to testify, that th« progress made during the eleven days' course '"f
lectures, particularly in English Granamar, was equal to what is gcneraliv
made in a regular five months' session by the conimon mode of ttacliiii)..
Ani as we are fully convinced that there is no other system of instructiuu
in existence so well adapted to the vt'ants of the cotnnmnity generally, and
which affords such facilities to all classes of people for the acquirement ol a
scientific education : We, therefore, take great pleasure in nicommendu!!;
its speedy adoption in every neighborhood and village ; and we, moreover,
thmk it due to the Rev. B. York to recommend him to the patronage of all
to whom he may offer his services. DANIEL V. M<>RRI>,
Midway, Angust,\Ub. ROBERT WOOD.
From several Gentlewvi who utiended the Lectures at Mnier's Ch7pd, Gailjord
County f N. C., November 2, 1&46.
Rev. B. York —
DeakSiu: We had the pleasure of hearing your lectures on Eng'd.-h
Grammar and the other sciences, which yon taught at this place; and w«
are prepared to render our unqualiBed approbation of your system of iui-
parting scientific instruction to youtk and adults. The engaging niar.ner
in which you explained the elements of Grammar, asd accommodated thtm
to the capacities of your students, is an ample illustration of the utility of
\o\xv planof tca--hiiiij. Strict justice, therefore, constrains us to acknowl-
edge that the rapid progress of those under ysur tuition has far surpa.>-sed
our most sanguine hope. And though no science but (irafhmar wa« taught
to any considerable extent, we are confident, that your plan of teaching by
lecture and illustration on the black-board is more efficient in conveying
knowledge of any of the sciences than any that has ever been dcveloind.
We think that we cannot too strongly recommend your mode of teii< lung
Elocution, to those who desire a correct knowledge of that important and
interesting science, and th«sc who aspire to distinction in public declamn-
tion. We believe your students who applied themselves attentively el)-
tained a better knowledge of Grammar and Elocution, in the eleven <.\-*y)i
that»you taught, than is obtained by the usual mode of teaching in t^lv«
months.
Considering the low prices of tuition and the facilities for learnini;, wo
feel fully warranted in cheerfully recommending your plan of teaching to
an intelligent public. ' Your obedient servants,
W. E. EDWARDS, D. M. OSBDRNT.
S. W. WESTBROOK, THOMAS M. WOODBURX,
A. DILWORTH.
33i>4.4-3
Vi ^ lESTlMOSlALS.
From the Palmetto Standard, Chester, S. C, September 19, 1852.
GRAMMAR CLASS.
We were, by inviUition, present on Wednesday last at the examination
of a Grammar Class taught by the Rev. B. York, of N. C, at Armenia
Church, in this District. We found that the pupils had been very thor-
oughly instructed, having made a greater proficiency than we supposed
could possibly be made in so short a time. The course of instruction com-
prised but twenty lectures, and most of the students, as we learned, had
given no previous attentitn to the study of English Grammar, yet they
stood an examination w-hich was honorable to themselves, and highly so t»
the zeal and competency of their instructor. We are satisfied that the pH-
pils had acquired a more thorough knowledge of the English Grammar, in
the twenty lessons, than is generally obtained in as many months on the
older modes of instruction.
Before parsing a sentence, Mr. York gives his pupils an understanding
of the sentence to be parsed, by illustrations on the black-board, as we
learned, principally of his own devising, showing the various relations,
connections and dependencies of._the several parts of the sentences to each
other. Though the process by which this was done is somewhat mechan-
ical, yet it is most admirably adapted to the accomplishment of the end in
From the TorJcville (S. C. ) Miscellanv.
Incompliance with an invitation from Rev. B. York and his class, the
undersigned were prosent last evening at the examination on English
Grammar and Elocution, and feel themselves called upon, as a Committee,
to express their views in reference to the same. With regard to Mr. Y 's
system of instruction, we are not prepared to say a great deal, inasmuch as
our acquaintance with it is predicated upon merely what we saw and heard
last night. We cannot, however, hesitate to express our admiration of it,
as one batter calculated to simplify the study of Grammar and afford in a
short time a knowledge of the Philosophy of the Language than any other
with which we are acquainted.
Mr. York requires the student, before he enters upon the parsing of a
sentence, to ascertain, by systematic analysis and synthesis, the true
7iieaning of it, so that he may have in his mind the leading ideas of the
sentence, and be enabled more easily and accurately to parse it. Of this
plan we cannot but approve, inasmuch as, opposing the old mechanical
procedure in parsing, and eliciting at once the attention, it cannot but im-
prove the understanding and cultivate the memory. Mr, Y.'s plan of
^ teaching by lecture and illustration is calculated to impart to his pupils a
thorough understanding of the science of Grammar.
In regard to the proficiency of the pupils who were examined^belore us,
we would merely say, they had received twenty lectures in about fifty
hours, and the most of them at night. In that length of time they could
not so praiseworthily have acquitted themselves had not this mode of in-
struction been superior to the old ones. Many of them, we learned, had
never studied Grammar, who went through the exercises in parsing with
considerable facility. Indeed, all who were examined acquitted themselves
with credit, considering the short time in which they received instruction,
and the irregularity of i heir attention to it.
We were pleapf d with the exereises in Elocution, although Mr. York, in
consequence of the lateness of the hour, did not explain tbe principles
noon which he teaches the science. It -"»re, however, that his students
TESTIMONIALS. VU
are drilled in the use of voice and gesture, so that they may bo thorough-
ly developed. This practical mode of teaching Elocution is the best, and ♦
the success attending its application of the principles has fully established
its value. W. C. BEATTY, THOS. D. OORT,
W. J. B()\VEN, JOHN G. ENLOK,
Yorkville, S. C, December 1, 1852. KLIAS J. MEYNARDIE.
From, the Yorhoille (S. C.) Remedy.
NEW GRAMMAR.
We are placed in possession of a small book entitled, " An Illustrative
and Constructive Grammar," by the Rev. Brantley York, of York Collegi-
ate Institute, Alexander County, N. C. It appears that Mr. Y. has had
long experience in teaching Grammar, by diagrams tn a blackboard, giv-
ing the itudent a correct knowledge of Grammar in twenty lessoris. This
book is gotten up on the same jtlan, and as far as we have had time to ex-
amine it, we are altogether pleased with it, ani have no «loubtthat it pos-
sesses all the advantages claimed for it by the author. This is a study
which is too mach neglected, notwithstanding its vast and paramount im-
portance. We would recomme«d this work to the examination of teachers
and parents generally, feeling confident that it will accomplish all its pur-
poses.
From the Carolina Watchman^ Salisbury, iV. C,
PROF. YORK'S GRAMMAR.
This new and valuable work is now nearly ready for tho market. It will
be out in a few days.
This work is the result «f some fifteen years of patient and laborious
stud3% during m«st of which time the author has bean teaching and lectur-
ing on Grammar, and improving the system. Tho iUristratlve f«ature is
new, happily answering the purpose of the author in greatly facilitating the
learner in the acquisition of a correct knowledge of language. A few new
terms have bc«n introduced, which may at first strike the minds of those
who are wedded to "old things" with little favor. But a more thorough
examination into*thesc will serve to commend the work to their earnest
attention. The Glonsary of terras, whidh alo«e is worth the price of the
volume, comprehending as it does all that are used in works of this kind,
will explain what is now and show their appropriateness, and remove many
a difficulty in respect to those long in use. Those who have had an oppor-
tunity of attending the lectures of P-of. Y^ork need no assurance that this
is truly a scientific work. Wc have had many anxious inquiries from such
when the book would be ready for circulation, and we suppose no batter
evidence of the value of the system could at present be olfjrod. Wiierever
it has been taught the results have astonished believers in other plans.
From the Carolina InteUigencr.r^ Slielby^ K O.
PROF. YORK'S GRAMMAR.
We have been presented with a copy of Prof York's new editioi of the
English Grammar. It is the best illustrative and constructive work of the
kind we have seen. He has been engaged for many years teaching gram-
mar; and wherever he ha^^ taught \\%^ given general satisfaction This
work is taking tho place of all others wiierever it has circulated. This
work ciu be purchased at the store of Roberts &. Fullenwider iu tbii place.
till TESTIMONIALS.
trom the Spirit of the Age, Raleigh, N. C.
A REVIEW BY REV. A. W. MANGUM, A. B.
Mr. Editor: I wish to call the attention of your readers, particularly
those who are Teachers or Students, to a matter which will prove benefi-
cial to tliein and to the cause of Education.
I have, by invitation, recently attended Lectures on English Grammar
by Rev. Prof. Brantley York, President of York Collegiate Institute, and
have carefully perused the Grammar of which he is the author. The sys-
tem of teaching which he has invented deserves the attention of all teach-
ers. It enables those who diligently apply themselves to acquire a good
knowledge of Grammar in four or fit.e weehs, while, as every one knows,
the usual methods require at least four or five months. A leading excel-
lence of his method consists in the fact that he uses the black-board, thus
making the eye as well as the ear a medium of instruction. This is a de-
cided superiority over the common methods; for, as the author says in his
preface, "intellectual improvement must be in proportion to the senses ex-
ercised." He has devised ingenious diagrams which, while they interest
the eye, explain the science of Grammar and impress its principles deeply
upon the mind. Many able scholars in both North and South Carolina
have extolled his method, being convinced of its excellence by its fruits.
But it is his Grammar which I wish especially to recommend. Those
who are acquainted with the various Grammars of our language will readi-
ly admit that all the pretended new ones, published for the last fifty years,
have been little more than copies of the ideas of those before them, with a
change in expression or words and arrangement. I can safely say that
Prof. York's is a ntw Grammar. It contains originality, and that origia-
ality is unquestionably im2}rovemen.t.
All who have taught or studied English Grammar are aware that gener-
ally the memory is the chief, and often the only faculty of the mind exer-
cised by the learner; but Prof. York's requires especially the exercise of
reason, and thus enables the student to incorporate its rules and principles
into his habits of thinking, speaking and writing. Unlike others, he care-
fully gives reasons for his rules and principles. He has made it a grand
object to teach the language with the Grammar, thus again outstripping
(jthers.
He has given plain, pointed and comprehensive rules for punctuation. —
Every one knows the difiBculty of learning to punctuate correctly, and also
how inefldcient the rules of most authors on punctuation are. Prof. York's
rules are easily understood and truly practical. A glossary of all the
technical terms used is annexed to the volume ; a great advantage to the
student, as he seldom knows anything about Latin or Greek,
In fine, the author detects and exposes the imperfections of others; ex-
plodes time-honored errors ; establishes new truths ; discovers new princi-
ples ; and produces positive and valuable improvements in many respects.
Several distinguished teachers in high schools in North Carolina have
adopted his Grammar as a text book. If it be an improvement on other
similar works, suiely •thers should be discarded and it adopted.
The author is a North Carolinian, and if his b«ok possesses real merit,
North Carolinians ought to encourage his talent and give him their pat-
ronage.
P KEF AGE
As the senses are the channels through which knowledge is conTtyed to
the mind, or the mediums through which the external world holds inter-
course with the intellective principle, it must necessarily follow that the in*
tellectual improTement must be in proportion to the number of senses ex-
ercised. One who sees, feels, and hears an object, must, in the nature of
things, have a clearer idea of it than he who sees or hears it only ; hence
the importance, in the acquisition of any science or art, of addressing all
the senses which are capable of being addressed. Nor is this all : the
senses are not only the mediums through which knowledge is communica-
ted to the mind, but they are also the channels through which the silvery
streams of pleasure flow to the heart.
Nor is the association of innocent pleasures a matter of so small impor-
tance that it should be overlooked by Educators ; for our efforts at in-
struction must, in a great measure, be fruitless so long as the pupils feel
no pleasure in study. The truth is, we may as well attempt t» make two
bodies occupy the same space at the same time, as to force instruction on
unwilling or indifferent minds. The thirst must be incited before the re-
freshing draught will be relished or gought. Guided by the light of this
philosophy, the Author has, for several years, endeavored by appropriate
and instructive diagrams, to interest the eye by seeing, as well as the ear
by hearing. How far he has been successful in bis arduous efforts to com-
municate a knowledge of the constructive principles of the English Lan^
guage, the hundreds of pupils to whom he has lectured during the last
twelve years, will readily testify.
No apology is offered for thfe publication of this work, but that the Au-
thor believes it will be useful to his classes, and, perhaps, to all who think
proper to study it.
The originality claimed for this work is the plan of teaching. But the
Author, however, acknowledges with pleasure, that he has received val-
uable aid from Dr. "Webster's Improved Grammar, American Syntithology,
by James Brown, Gicenc's Analysis of the English Language, Dr. Bullions,
and others.
Notwithstanding the many disadvantages under which the Author la-
bored during the preparation of this little work, such as defective vision
and the want of time, he asks not to be shielded from the ordeal of Vme
criticism.
With these few prefatory remarks, this little wogf is repectfully gub-
mitted to an enlightened public.
THF ATTHOR
PREFACE
TO THE REVISED EDITION.
In consequence of the delicate health of the Author, and the want of
means, the publication of this edition has been delayed since the flisttwo
editions were out But the constantly increasing sale of those editions,
and the frequent and repeated calls for the work since they were exhaust-
ed, have encouraged the author to attempt the publication of a revised
and enlarged edition.
No pains have been spared to clear this M'ork from error, and to make it
not only a suitable text-book for schools and colleges, but also for private
learners and family instruction.
It combines all the advantages growing out of a thorough Analytical and
Synthetical process. This is believed to be important; since no sentence
can be correctly parsed unless it is first understood.
A few terms have been introduced which hahrenotas yet found their way
into our Dictionaries ; these are principally selected from the American
S\ ntithology, by James Brown of Philadelphia. For their explanations,
the reader is referred to the author's glossary of scientific terms. The
■eccssity of these terms arises from the peculiar mode of analyzing and
construing, used in this work. *
3fonolo(fy, for instance, is a convenient and comprehensive term, used to
designate that kind of analysis which separates the sentence into clauses
and phrases, which constitutes the basis of a regular and thorough con-
struction of sentences. As to the utility and importance of drilling pu-
pils in the constructive principles of language, there is, perhaps, no differ-
ence of opinion ; but much of this utility is frequently lost for the want of
an appropriate Nomenclature. For such a Nomenclature, we are chiefly
indebted to Mr. James Brown, already mentioned.
The term mono, used by Mr. Brown to designate an elcnjent of a sentence,
whether clause or phrase, is not absolutely necessary ; since the term
memher will do as well; and, as ft is purely English, many, perhaps, would
prefer it.
The term noeton is used to point out any element of a sentence, per-
eeircd by the mind only, and not by the senses, but which is necessary in
order to its correct analysis and construction. Understood is the term in
common use, but as it is ambiguous, the former is preferable. Those, how-
ever, who prefer the latter, have our consent.
IPJtlEJPACE, \\
0
Monodone is the namo given by J. Brown to such words as give mem-
^aers; hence member-givcr may be substituted, ia its stead by those who
(prefer it. •
Sulfirmathe is applied to such sentences as express a less degree of ver-
'oal force than afErmative ones, henco it is more comprehensive than ilypo-v
thetical or Conditional.
Dendrology is employed in an accommodated sense, somewhat diffejf-nt
from its primary one ; and yet, in some measure analagoua to it. By the
I>6:iidTology of a soHtence, is meant the various relations which the subor*
dinate members bear to the leading clause, as illustrated by the frame
work of a tree. As all the branches of a tree are connected with, and de-
pend upon the trunk either directly or indirectly, so all the subordinate
Kierabers arc connected with the leading clause, and depend upon it. The
nearness or remoteness of this connection is pointed out by the rank of
members. (See Dfendrology of Sentences.)
jS'«& and jSaper arc not introduced as standing techmcalities, but are
■either joined to the word member -, as, «u5-member and .in^^cr-mcmbcr, to
express their constructiverelation to eRch other, or as substitutes; ^ntv.he
for eM^-members and stpen for «t<«?er-meiabcrs„
The almost unparalleled success which has crewr.ed the eE'orts oif alfi
who have adopted* this mode of teaching, abyudantly proves its cffi.cf.e'.?.cy ;
but, if any prefer the ordinary way cf teaching, they will Giid a complete
"Grammar in the sacond part, with ample models ar>r? evr.rcV'-s Wt): r<>r
{larsing and correcting.
No changes have been made ir. the con^moR r.GnicK.cla.Curc o^ g'l't.tiiv.s.*!^-
•cal terms, ey.cept in sech as dc net adiait cf eyplanatieii as s.{>pJ.icd tji graias.*-
fiiar. We dt net supposa hevrever, that the acHE.e ef excelicn-ce feas feeem
B"each'ed, or that more appropriate terms raight net be cciflioycd-; fcut, »s
there is scarcely any probability that tke RQffi.ep.clatEirc cf tb© gratwitsars <rf'
other languages v/ill change, we deeo?'. it iaexpe^ieet toi Bciakei «xt«Rsi>-<' ca-
•nuvatiens wpcn oKr own.
It has been eur uniieviatiRg aiua t© make tke dcErattens as(£ rtclf s ■^l (th«
■art, harmonize with the jiripxiples ef the Ecicrxc e€ f8.Rgs*g-6> fe: (J'T^ng
"this, several uniiRpertaRt distiRGtieRS and useless tt-vwtt kar* ^- ores;'! city
•been rtiiected.- such, for ip.staEcc, as ac^'ectire rrca(H!.rt^ fxccenrinsu'. sdjycfc"*?^
•compound relative proROUE, f'tidcEritc «.(^ectr>6 ;5«;rcr«c«tK, "it^" itnC/tivc ■.««■>.
Junction, etc. The same word naar- be essed ictcTckattgCRfelf *£ aa ■s.dj'«o!i'?<e
aad a preneun, but no wcrd ever participft-'ics m tfec pocpfrrtecs <£ tci/r. t.t
the samo time ; then sech a thitg «.s ks ctijective wr-'yiio^tei; 'ices rL-ij^^nA
can r.ot sxist
*
As cectitiE. forms <sf ike vetb ^cictocittia. ■ --;»^»-«n:t'^
jfpast, cr fitture, to suck vre h.iv« «.pp.li«<i ttt ; r.t i„ «tk
^hi»- ttnise «f jth€ e?ei»t ir^ic«te* fey s«*cli ir«*^.8^ vmxxt ^fpHt ^fwr^l^y <t* lof-^/aw^
lii PREFACE.
«
the digcriminating learner may apply a tense corresponding with the time
of the event.
Authors are not always suflBciently accurate in discriminating between
the time of the speaker and that of the event ; hence it is generally said
that a verb in the imperative mode is in the present tense, because it is
impossible to command either in the pastor future time. This may be so;
but the tense ef the verb is not to be determined by the time of the speak-
er, but by the time of the event; and, if the event were really occurring
at the time of the command, it would supersede the necessity for it ; but,
since the event or act must necessarily take place subsequently to the
command, the time must be future ; consequently the tense, strictly speak-
ing, is also future, though it is generally called present
As the principal authors consulted in this work have already been men-
tioned, we deem it unnecessary to refer to them here.
Grateful for the favorable manner with which the first editions have been
received, the author hopes, in this, to present a work to the discriminating
public more worthy of favor and patronage.
Yoke Cou.egiate Institute, N. C, Oct., 1862.
CONTENTS.
PART I,
CHAPTER I.
]
1 1. Sentencet,
2. Simple, Compound and Complex,
i 3. Simple Seutence,
4. Compound Sentence,
5. Complex Sentence,
CHAPTER n.
1. Kind! of Sentence!,
5. Affirmfttire Sentences,
8. Subfirmative Sentences,
4. Exclamative Sentences,
6. Interrogative Sentence!,
6. Imperative Sentences,
7. Petitionary Sentences,
CHAPTBR m.
% 1. Construction of Affirmative and Sab*
flnnative Sentences, 26
§ 2. Intarrogatire Sentences, 36
CHAPTER VIII.
21'§ 1. Construction of Sentences.
21 g 3. ©rdcrs, Trunk and Branch.
81 fe 3. Noution— Plenary and Implenarr
21 S 4. Integrity— Perfect and Imperfect.
21 § 5. Rank of Members,
i 6. Position— Juxta, Disjuxta, and Biaal »T
i 7. Snper, Sub, 33
CHAPTER IV.
1. Elements of Sentencci,
i 2. Substantive Elements,
3. Verbal Elementt,
t 4. Adjective Elements,
6. Adverbial Elements,
6. Connective Elements,
I 7. Elements— Principal and Sabonll-
nate,
S 8. Subject,
I ». Predicate,
CHAPTER V.
Aoalygis of a Sentence,
CHAPTER VI
€ 1. CoE8t:Tict!on of EI«!a$nt«.
1 2. Adjective Elesients,
I S. Adverbial Elemento,
$ 4. Abrid£em«Bt of Slesiente,
CHAPTER VII.
51 AnaJysia of 3cnteace» into Cla«ee»
tnd IkraB«B,
71«B
•7
«7
87
37
87
CHAPTER IX.
§ 1. Alligation,
CHAPTER X.
§ 1. Systematic Order of ParsiDf
CHAPTER XI.
CHAPTER XII.
27! General Remarks,
27
CHAPTER
30
xin.
Prvmiscnous Exercises,
CHAPTER XIV.
S 1. Idea,
§ 2. Proposition,
S 3. Predicai*,
S 4. Copula,
^ 6. Subject,
^ 6. Categorical Propositions,
g 7. Affirmative and Negative Propo-
sitions,
I «. UniverssJ end Pa:ticti!«r Frono-
6it!o=s.
\ 9. Terms of a Proposition.
J 10. Convsreion of Propos:rio::s,
i 11. Opposition of Propo8itl»nB,
CHAPTER XV.
j8 1. Reasoning,
II 3. Syllo|;istlc Reasoning, Rales, ct".
mb. Soriteji,
40
§ 1. Directions for rendering scntenctt
Plenary, ^j
6S
54
67
67
57
6T
57
«7
»7
6T
66
68
68
60
69
6»
PART II.
CHAPTER 1.
1
CHAPTER XIII.
page!
PAOK
1 1. Language
65 i
i
General Uomarks on the Verb
,, 103
CHAPTER II.
CHAPTER XIV.
§1. Grammar
1 2. Tonics or Vowel.9,
65
67'
Partic:ples
104
1 3. D?phthongB,
1 4. Triphthongs,
67j
CHAPTER XV.
1 5. Sub-tonics or Sub-Toweli,
681
1 6. Atonies,
t)9
Pronouns or Substitutes
106.
1 7. Letters,
'.l
, CHAPTER XVI.
CHAPTER IlL
Relative Pronouns
109
§ 1. English Grammar,
72
1 3. F*Dr Parts,
73
CHAPTER XVII.
CHAPTER IV.
The Article
111
§ 1. Rules f«r Spellikg,
73
CHAPTER XVIII.
CHAPTER V.
Adjectives
112
§ 1. Etymology,
75
CHAPTER XIX.
^ 2. NVords,
^ 8. Division of Word*,
75
75
Specifying Adjectives
114
(; 4. Deelinable and IndecUuablt,
76
§ 5. Parts of Speech,
76
CHAPTER XX.
CHAPTER VI.
Adverbs, or Modifiers
11»
§ 1. ClaBsiflcatien of Words— Primary
CHAPTER XXI,
and ^econd.'try.
7^i
§ 2. Secondary Words,
76
Prepositions
117
List of lYepositious
117
CHAPTER Vir.
§ 1. Nouns,
77
CHAPTER XXIL
§3. Accidents,
§ 3. Gender,
77
77
ConjuncUons
119
§ 4. Person,
78
§ 5. Number,
78
CHAPTER XXIII.
§ 6. Case,
7S
Inteijections or Exclamations
120
CHAPTER VIII.
'
V
§ 1. Verb?,
73
•CHAPTER XXrV.
1 2. Modes,
bO
$ 3. Ten?e,
81
Peculiar Constructions, Idioms,
and
i. Person and Number— Remarks.
b3
Intricacies
121
CHAPTER IX.
CHAPTER XXV.
g 1. Cociujation of the Verb,
•t. Reg'ular Verbs,
«. Tha Passive Voice,
CHAPTER X.
Auxiliary Vsrbt.
OEAPTEE XI.
§ 1. Formation of the Tenses,
CHAPTER Zll
^ 1. Irregular Vertf .
List of Vi>rb».
126
onlSolutionof Difficult Sentences, promis-
,,•[ I cuously arranged
CHAPTER XXVI.
JThc Grammatical Language of the Bible 13-3
CHAPTER XXVII.
.§1. Syntax, 125
I 2. Govemme:it, Conccr.'t, and Agree-
5' meet, 185
Rules of Syntax, with Notes and Re-
1 marks, 186
96
»1
CHAPTFP. yxvm.
^<^'F»i«« Byutnx.
147
.ni.N'l J. M:-.
XV
CHAPTER XXIX.
MiBcellaneons Hemarki.
CHAPTER XXX,
ExoMlses in False Syntax,
CHAPTER XXXr.
Colloquial Inaccuracies,
CHAPTEK XXXTI.
PJiiih i 1.
14.
15.
16.
17.
1«.
IH.
irvr 2(1.
154
§1. Punctuation,
"3. Th# Principal Stops,
3. Two Classes,
4. The Comma— Rales and Remarks of
same,
0. Semicolon— Rules and Remarks of
same,
C. Colon— Rules and Remarks of same,
7. Period,
8. The Dash,
;i. The Parenthesis,
10. Intorrorration I'oint,
11. Exclaniatiou Point,
12. Brackets,
13. Quotation Marks,
14. The Ciiret,
1,1. The Hyphen.
16. The Kflipsis.
17. The Iiule.N.,
18. The Paratjrapb,
19. The Section,
20. DiarcsiSj
21. Accent,
22. The Apostrophe,
2«. Brace.
34. Afterisks,
25. Foot Notes,
CHAPTER XXXIII.
False Panctuafion,
Use of Capital Letters,
:; 2(i.
CHAPTER XXXIV
f 1. ProiodT.
5. Two Parts,
CHAPTER XXXV
§ 1. Poetry,
i. Versilicatiou,
8. A Verse.
4. A Hemistich,
5. A Couplet,
6. Stanza,
7. Common Metre,
8. short >fetrc,
9. Lou^ .Metre,
10. Blank Verse.
29.
170 30.
171 i"^ •
172 '•5'-
179
ir2!:jj-
172 •''■
i7;ij
178i
l''I?l.
iPi]
Itlivuie.
180
.'Vnalvsis of Rhyming Syllablon,
180
Sin' )e Rhyme,
181
Double Rhvuie,
181
Treble Rhym«,
181
Scanniuc,
181
Eight kinds of Feet.
1J<1
Iambic Verse,
183
Alexandrine,
18a
The Elegiac Stanza,
183
The Spenserian Stanza.
18S
Additional :^norl Syllable,
183
Trochaic Verse,
184
The Accent,
184
The Long Syllable.
184
Anapirstic Verse,
184
liactylic Verse,
185
Tlu- Iambic,
186
Trochee,
188
Spondee,
IStt
Pyrrhic,
186
Amphibrach.
1S7
Tribrach,
187
The Dactyl,
187
Anaprest,
187
Rules for Reading Verse,
187
Contractions and Additions,
188
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Rhetoric,
196
K.xnrdium,
196
Narration.
196
lonrirmation.
196
The Refutation,
196
" i ' Peroration,
196
17,5
177
CHAPTER XXXVII.
;ures of Speech,
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Composition,
Vol Subjects for Composition,
CHAPTER X'
English, Latin, and Greek 1'.
Glossary,
APPENDIX.
17!)
IT.)
ISO
ISO
J 80
ISO
ISO
180
180
180
197
Figures of Syntax, l!H
CHAPTER XXXIX.
200
209
204
Nouns, 207
Explanation of French Words, 213
I Explanation of Latin Words and Phra-
j ses, S15
Abbreviations. 818
AN ANALYTICAL,
ILliuSTJlATlVE AND CONSTRUCTIVE
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
SENTENCES.
§ 1. Sentence, from the Latin senteyitia, .is a number of
tvords arranged in due order, forming a complete proposition,
or such an arrangement of words as asserts a fact.
§ 2. Sentences, classified according to the elements of Avhich
they are composed, are of three kinds ; viz., Simple, Compound,
and Complex.
§ 3. A Sentence is simple when it contains but a single
subject and predicate ; as, " God is omnipotent.''
Kemark 1. — A Sentence, however, may be regarded as simple when its principal
parts nre modified by elemonts of the firi-t kind or single words, used as constit'
uent parts of a sentonce^ as, " A very good pen writes extremely icell."
§ 4. A Sentence is compound when it consists of two or
more simple sentences, united by a coordinate connective, each
member asserting an independent fact; as, " Wheat grows in^
the field, and men reap it."
Rem. 1.— a Sentence is partially compound when its subject, predicate, or ob-
ject is compound ; as, " Moses and Aran stood before Pharaoh." Kingdoms vise
and fall." " God created the heavens and the earth."
§ 5.- A Sentence is complex when its leading member or some
word in that member, is modified by a subordinate clause; as,.
"A man who is industrious, will acquire a competency."
Rem. 1. — There is a marked difference !)■ twcon compnund and cowp/cx sentences,
and, of this difference, the learner should have a clear cuncepti u. A compound
22 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
sentence, from con=together, and pono=to place, is composed of two or mor^sim-
ple sentences, not to express any modification of the fact, asserted in the leading
member.; but to join on members which assert additional facts — which facts though
they have a relation to each other in current discourse, may be expressed by inde-
pendent propositions ;.as, " Wheat grows in the field, men reap it, mills grind it,
bakers bake it, and eaters oat it." Each member of the above sentence, expresses
a,Q additional fact ; these members being connected by a co-ordinate connective,
either expressed or understood, constitute properly a compound sentence which
may be continued at the writer's pleasure, or till the subject is exhausted.
■Rem. 2. — In a complex sentence, from con=together, &nAplecto^=to weave, fha
members are subordinate in rank ; hence they do not express new facts ; but are
used to modify the leading nsember, or some subordinate one ; as, "The man wh)
seeks his happiness from terrestrial sources, will quit the world With great reluc-
tance." The man will quit the werld with great reluctante. What man ? Cer-
tainly not any man ;— but " the man who sbbks his happinkss from terres-
trial sotTRCES," then "who sbeks his hippiness 'from terrestrial sources,"
modifies " man," the subject of the leading clause, by showing what man he
is that " will quit the world tot/A great reluctance." " Who seeks his happiness "
mociifies the subject of the leading clause,— "/»o»« terrestrial sources" modifiws it
indirectly through the medium of •' ToSo sccis his happiness ;" hence you perceive
that the members or elements of a complex sentence are not simply placed together
as in a compound sentence ; but are woven or twisted, as it were, together by modi-
fying the leading members or each other.
Rem. 3. — Members joined on by conjunctive adverbs, are complex— aot being used
to affirm new facts, but to modify those expressed in the principal members ; and
the conjunctive adverb, as an adverb, considered apart from the rest of the element,
generally modifies the verb in the leading member, itself being modified by a
clause; as, " We go.to church when tAc "c/oci strikes ten." The idea the wri-
ter wifhes to convey by this sentence, is the time we go to church ; ichen being in-
definite in time, is incompetent to point out the precise time we go to church ;hencB
the writer subjoins " the clock strikes ten" Now it is obvious that the writer does
not intend to convey the idea simply that the clock strikes or how often it strikes ;
but he uses the phrase, to make the time indicated by " when " more definite ; then,
if " the clock strikes ten "enables "when " to do what before it was incompetent to
do, t- e., to t 11 the precise time "we goto cAwrc A," it is obvious that " the clock
strikes ten," modifies " when," and not that " when " modifies "strikes," a? is tre-
quently but erroneously supposed ; but the entire subordinate clause, " when the
clock strikes ten" as an adverbial element of the third class, modifies the verb " go"
by pointing out the time when of the action. See Elements of Sentences.
Rem. 4. — When a sentence is composed •f compound and complex elements, it is
e&\d to he mixed ; a,s, "The man and boy who were droioned, ha.\e, a,t length, been
found."
Rem. 5. — As to the elements necessary to constitate a compound sentence, it may
be observed that authors are not fully agreed. The most common solution given of
the compound sentence, is that given above, in which the members or clauses are
united by a co-ordinate connective; consequently of equal rank in construction ;
but some contend that a sentence is compound when either the subject or predicate
is compound, or even the object; as, "Henry and William study their lesson;"
" Kingdoms rise and fall ;" " God created the heavens and the earth ;" because such
sentence? may be resolved into two or more simple sentences, or the same idea may
be expressed by idfcking a separate afiBrmation concerning each element of which
' the compound subject is composed, or by attaching the same lubject to each of the
elements of the compound predicate, or by repeating the same subject and predi-
cate before each element in the compound object; thus,' "Henry studies his lesson,
and William studies his lesson." " Kingdoms rise, and kingdoms fall." " God
created the heavens, and He created the . earth." The authors referred to hare
come to the conclusion that they are compound.
That such sentences are partially compound, is readily admitted; but, as the
admission of such a definition would interfere with some of the rules of Syntax as
well as thoseof PuuctUiition, and, as some sentences Laving a ccaipound subject,
can not be resolved into simple members ; 'as, e. g., "Oxygen and Hydrogen form
water," we think it best to adhere to the solution already given of the compound
sentence.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 23
Exercises.
Model 1st. "Gold is yellow." This is a sentence, because it contains
such an arrangement of words, as asserts a fact. It is a sim.ple sentence,
because it contains but one subject" and predicate. Gold is the subject, and
is yellow the predicate. Is, taken by itself, is ih%- verh or copula.
Model 2d. "The day was calm, and the scene was delightful." This is a
ct)m;j()?«j(Z sentence, because it contains two clauses, united by a coordinate
connective, each of which asserts an independent fact.
Modeled. "They who sow in tears, shall reap in joy." This is a com-
plex sentence, because it contains a leading and a subordinate or modifying
clause. They shall reap in joy, is the leading clause ; and who sow i?i tears
the subordinate or modifying clause. It is called the subordinate or modi-
fying clause, because it modifies they, the subject of the leading clause.
Examples for Practice.
■ "Water flows. The sun shinas. Time slept on flow.crs, and lent his
glasses to hope. The lady that is wise and prudent, never complains of
adversity. A vei^ good pen writes extremely well. He who studies his
lesson, will improve. The law of the Lord is perfect. The sun shines by
day ; and the moon gives light by night. The partridge fiies swiftly. Tliose
little birds sing sweetly. In the beginning was the Word, and the Word
was with God, and the Word was God. Adams and Jefferson died on the
4th of July. The sun shines upon all men who will receive his rays. The
day was hot. The rain v^hich fell on last August, caused a great freshet.
The law was given by Moses ; but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ.
Paul wrote many epistles which he sent to the different churches. Day
unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge. Bona-
parte was defeated at Waterloo, and died at St. Helena. God is omnipo-
tent. They who live in glass houses should not throw stones. Day was
descending in the west when I brought his arms to Crothar. The sun-
beams rest on the grave where her beauty sleeps. We had heard the
news before the messenger arrived. The Greeks defeated the Turks. A
green, narrow vale appeared before us.
"Your friends may die, and haste away
To that blest world of rest ;
But Mary's part, with you, will stay.
And ever make you blest."
CHAPTER II.
SENTENCES CONTINUED.
§ 1. Sentences, classified according to the degree of verbal
force with which the affirmation is made, are of six kinds, viz :
Affirmative, Subfikmative, Exclamative, Interrogative,
Imperative, and Petitionary.
§ 2. An Affirmative sentence expresses the highest degree of
verbal force ; as, " Job Avas patient."
24 Analytical, illustrative akt>
Rem. a Negative sentence is not intended to J)e distinguished from the affirmative
in this classification, a<! the verbal force is tho s.imn in both,— 'the nes^ation being
affected by the modifying element not ; as, " Some men are not paiien^."
§ 3. A Suhfirmative sentence expresses a less degree of ver-
bal force; as, " I may have been mistaken."
§ 4. An Exclamative sentence expresses together with the
aflfirmation, some emotion of feeling ; as,
* " How beauteous are their feet,
Who stand on Zion's hill !"
Rem. As Exclamative sentences express au emotion, they should always be closed
with an exclamation point.
§ 5. An Interrogative sentence contains a questioti ; as,
" Was Job patient f"
Rem. 1. — There are two kinds of Interrogative sentences — Direct .and Indirect.
Rem. 2. — An interrogative sentence is direct when the question ij asked with a
verb and the answer in the responsive member will be. Yes or No\ buJ when the
responsive member is rendered plenary, No becomes Not ; as, " Will you go? No
(rendered plenary), I will not go."
Rem. .3 — Direct Interrogative sentences should be closed with the upward slide of
the voice : as, '' Is the minister at home?"
Rem. 4.— An Interrogative sentence is indirect when the question is asked with
an interrogativepronoun or adverb ; as, " Who will go? Why have you done so ?"
Rem. 6. — When we inquire for the subject in the resjmnsive member, the ques-
tion must be asked with ihe nominative case ; us who wrote that? 'John:" but,
When we inquire for the object of the responsive member, the question must be
asked with the objective case ; as, " Whom shall we send ? Him and me."
Rem. 6 — When we inquire for ihe predicate of the responsive member; the question
must be asked with a verb ; as, " Was be at home ?"
Bem. 7. — When we inquire for the reasojior cause for what is affirmed in the
responsive member, the question must be asked with the adverbs why and wherefore ]
as, " Why do you delay ? Because I have not determined to go."
Rem. 8. — When wo inquire for the scene of the predicate in the responsive member,
the question must be isked with the adveib where ; as, "Where were you standing
when the procession passed? In the door."
Rem. 9. — When we inquire for the manner of the predicate in the responsive mem-
ber, thequcstion must be asked with the adverb how ; as, "How did Cataliue die?
Disgracefully.
Rem. 10. — When we ii.quire for the quantity of the predicate in the responsive
member, the question must bo asked with how much ; as, " How much did he give ftr
the horse ? One hundred d(.ilars."
Rem. 11 — When we inquire for the ^,me of the predicate, the question must bo
asked with the adverbs hoiv long and when ; as, " How long wilt thou abuse our
patience, 0 Cataline? When will CjOFar cease from conquering?"
Rem. 12. — And when we inquire for the origin or source of the predicate, the
question must be asked with the adverb whence ; as, " Whence arise wars? From
ambition."
Rem. 13. — It should be observed that the responsive members are generally very
implenary — frequently having but one word expressed; but, in analyzing, they
must be rendered plenary.
§ 6. A sentence is Imperative when it contains a command ;
as, "Know thyself."
§ 7. A sentence is Petitionary when it contains a petition ;
as, " Forgive us our debts."
CONSTUUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 25
Rem. 1. — The charactoristic difference between an Tmporative and Petitionary
Beiitence is this ; a soptonro is troly Tmpcraihv when the speaker has power to cn-
fort-e obcdionoo to his ri.u minds ; but it^ is Prtitiniianj when the speaker has no
power to enforce obedienrr The predicate of nny Imperative sontcnct* ia always in
tbo Itnjiorativo mood ; l>nt ihe predicnto of a Petitionary sentence maybe in the Im-
perative or Potential mooii ; as '' Do attend to my instructions. May the Lord
prosper your way."
Kem. 2. — Petitionary sentences arc of two k'mds—Birfict and Indirect. A Peti-
tionary sentence is direct when the subject is of the ftecond person, and the verb in
the Imperative mode ; as, '• Lead us notinto temptation," i. e., Lead thou, <f-c.
Rkm. 3. — The petition is indirect when the subject is of the third person, and the
verb is of the Potential morie ; an,
" 0 may thy powerful itord
Inspire a feeble worm!" ■
Exercises.
Mocf4fl\st. "God is omnipotent." This sentence is affirmative, heiCOMSQ
it expresses the liighest degree of verbal force. It is simple, because it
contains but one subject and predicate. God is the snhject ; is omnijfotenty
the preilifiate, and in, taken by itself, is the rerh or copula.
Model 2d. "The day may have been lost." This sentence is suh/irmative,
because it expresses a less degree of verbal force. It is simple, &c., (see
Model 1st.)
Model 3d. "Is the gentleman at home ?" This sentence is interrogative,
because it contains a question ; direct, because the question is asked with
a verb, and the answer may bo, Yes or Xo.
Model Ath. "Boys, obey niy precepts." This sentence is imj)erative,
because it contains a command, and the speeker is supposed to have power
'to enforce oljediencc.
Model 5th. "Deliver us from evil." This sentence is petitionary,
because it contains a petition. Direct, because the subject is addressed,
-and the verb ig in the imperative mode.
Model Gth. " May the Lord go with thee." This sentence is petitionary,
"because it contains a pctitiou. Indirect, because the subject is of the third
,person, and (tlxi verb, in- the 2Jotential mode.
Examples for Practice.
The Lord is my shepherd. The day was calm and the scene delightful,
(Canst thou expect to escape the hand of vengeance? Go ye into all the
world, a.nd preach my gospel unto every creature. How swiftl}' time fiic^j
The day glides sweetly o'er our heads. 1 may have hcanl it, though I do
.not recollect it. May wi.><doni guide thy steps. Take no thought for to-
morrow. ^Vhy does lie stay so king? When will ho return ? V^ho will
undcrt'ike the enterp'riKC? They sleep in death, and hear of wars no more.
Hast thou an arm like (iod ? How vain are all things; bore below ! How
«hall we osciipe, if we neglect so great salvation? Render unto C;i?sar
the things that be Cassar's. l*he day may be fine. Why seek ye that
whirh is not broad V May his grace sustain you. How happy is the pil-
grim's lot! llemeipber thp Sabbath day. Where has he gone? The
«un shines upon the floor.
Who can resolve the d.'ubt
That tears my anxious breast ?
Rem. SoTh qaoftiont' hs the foriowin? mny be Bdvantiareons. Why a Rontcnee ?
Why simple or compound ? Why affinruitire? Muhfirmafive 7 cxclam'itix-e? inter-
rogatire ? imprralife ? nr petitionary ? Why director indited/ If direct, whu^
elide mu«t tbn vuiue take at tbo close of tbe scntcoco, <te.
26 XKALTTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
CHAPTER III.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
§ 1. In affirmative and sul)firmati\^e sentences, the subject or
nominative is generally construed before the predicate or verb ;
as, " Moses smote the rock." But this order is frequently
transposed.
An Intransitive verb is frequently construed before its nominative,
especially in poetic style; as, "Above it stood the seraphim." — Isaiah vi.
"CJradual sinks the breeze." — Thomson.
When a sentence commences with any of the following words, viz. : here,
there, hence^ thence, (hen, thu.% yet, 90, nor, neither, such, the same, herein,
therein, ^rherein, and .some other words of similar import, the verb is con-
strued before its nominative; as, " Here are five men ;" "there grows the
flower of the mountain ;'' " then came the scribes and Phari.sees ; " " henco
arise wars;" "thence proceed our vicious habits;" " thus saith the Lord;"
"yet required I not bread of the (lovernor." — Xeh. v., 18. "So panteth
my soul after thee, O, Lord." — Psalm xlii. "Neither hatlk this man sin-
ned nor his parents." — Jofiii \x. " Such were t)ie facts;" "the same was a
fact;" *' herein consists the excellency of the English government."' — Black-
etoneh Com., Book \.
When a sentence is introduced by an emphatic adjective, the verb is con-
strued before its nominative; as, "Great is Diuna of the Ephesians"
Also, when a sentence commences with a preposition, the nominative is
generally construed after the verb ; as, " On eillier side of the river, grcT*'
the tree of. life."
§ 2. In interrogative sentences, especially when direct, the
nominative is construed after the verb or between the first aux-
iliary and principal verb ; as, " Belicvcst thou the prophets?"
" And must I be to judgment brought V
In indirect interrogations, the objective case is frequently construed be-
fore the word which governs it ; as, " Whom seest thou V"
§ 3. In imperative and petitionary sentences, the nominative
is invariably construed after the verb and is generally under-
stood ; as,* "My son, give me thy heart." "Give us this day
our daily bread."
•Rfm. 1. — It may be observed that what is said of the construction oi i'he petition-
ary sentences, applies to direct petitions ; for the subject of indirect petitionary sen-
ti I'cos, i« ;;en«raUy construed between the auxiliary and the verb; as, " May the
Li rd prosper your way."
In exclamative sentences, the subject is frequently constrael after the prod-
icate, or between its parts when it consists of more parts than one; as, " How beau-
teous are their /ee/ .'" " How do thy mercies close me round I"
Rkm. 2. — The learner may derive much aid in parting by carefully s'udying the con-
Btruciion of the subject and predicate as exhibited in the different kinds of sentences
JBSt explained. Th' ugh. in the natural order of cont-truction in the Englist. lan-
guage, the subject is construed before the verb or predicate, and the verb, before
its object : yet fo frequent are ihe transpositions of sentences for vari< us purposes
that but little aid can bo derived in parsing from this order of conatraction. The
ecDse alone must be looked to as the only competent guide.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 27
CHAPTER IV.
ELEMENTS OP SENTENCES.
§ 1. The compoiitnt parts of a sentence are called its ele-
ments.
Elements, classified according to the ofl5ce which they perform, may be
ranked under jBve distinct heads, namely — substantive, verbal, adjective,
adverbial aftd connect ice.
§ 2. Substantive elements embrace all nouns and pronouns,
and all phrases and clauses used substantively.
Rem. 1.— Any word or combination of words which can be made the subject of a
proposition, is a substanlivc clement.
Siibstanth^e elevacnts occupy a prominent position in the eonstructi on of sen-
tences. They are to the sentence what the bones are to the animal system. Tuey
are, as it were, tbe solid parts to which other elements attach themselves in va-
rious ways Id the verbal frnme-work of a sentence.
When a substantive element is a subject of a proposition, it may be called the sub-
jective element, and, when it is the object, the objective element, and, wnen it lim^
its another substantive by pointing out the thing possessed, it may be denominated
the /)o«»c»sit)e element ; us, "John hurt Peter's head." In this sentence, /o^n is
the ^ut1jective element, because it is the subject of the affirmation ; iV/c/'s limits
head by pointing out tbu oliject possessed ; it is. therefore, the possessive element ;
and head is the objective element, beoause it limits the predicate hurt, 1-y pc*hjting
out tbe object of its action.
Rem. 2. — As the possessive element limits another substantive element, it is ad-
jective in Jhis respect; but, as it retains its substantive character in other respects,
we have chosen to call it the possesHve element.
§ 3. Verbal elements include all verbs and their variations.
Reit. 1. — As the finite verb or the verb limited by a nominative, is, in a gram -
matica4 sense, either the predicate itself, or an essential part of it, it occupies a very
important position in a sentence as an element.
Rem. 2 —It is worthy of remark that as a verb in the infinitive mode does not
limit the affirmation to any particular subject, it is of itself incapable of being the
predicate of a proposition.
Rem. 3.— The verb in th>e infinitive mode, while it retains fomeof its verbal char-
acter under all circumstances, partakes at the same time of the nature of other ele-
ments. When it is used a? the subject of the verb or tbe object of a verb, it per-
forms the office of a substantive element, aod maybe regarded as a substantive
element; as, " To steal is base." " I love to hear an eloquent spoaker." In the
first example to steal is the .subject of the propcsition, and, of course, is .-ii stan-
tive. To hear, in the second example, has an objective relation, but, as it oxpre.'is-
•s action as another verb, and governs an objective case, it may be thus analyzed :
To hear is a verbal element, and limits the verb love as a substantive elemmt, by
pointing out the object of its action.
Rem. 4.— When the infinitive depends upon a substantive element in construc-
tion, it partakes of the nature of an adjective element; as, " He has received a
PROPOSAL to return." • He saw the meteor fall." But, when it depends upon some
verbal element or an aiijtctive element as its complement, it partakes of the nature
of an adverbial element; as, " She is eagkr to learn." " They ran to meet him."
Rem. 5.— Jn .analyzing the verb in the infinitive mode, it may in all cases, except
when u.sed as the subjevt of the verb, be regarded as the verbal element. Care
should, however, be taken lo point out the change of meaning produced by its
modifying inlluence up' • t ,o loments which it liuiits.
§ 4i. Adjective elements embrace all qualifying and specify-
ing adjectives, articles, participles, and all phrasea and clauses
used adjectively.
28 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Rem. 1. Adjective e]erDexitB may be joined to subntantire elements either with
or without a connective ; as, (1) " Tall treee." (2) " Beautiful streams." (3) " The
eun is bright." (4) " The day -n-as rold." (5) " A man of iiuhstri/." (fi) " A
]tLdy tn/iois prvdrvt." In the first two examples, tall &nd beautiful atq 8A\i to ho
assumed of trees and streams respectively. In the third and fourth, the attributes
brii;ht and cold are affirmed of the subjects of their respective sentences.
Rem. 2. — The difference between assuming and affirming nn attribute, should bo
carefully noted, and clearly understood by the learner. In Nos. 5 and fi, the adjec^
tive elements are joined on by connectives, but their adjective character is as obvious
as if no connectives bad been used. "A vmn nf industry" is. equivalent to " An
industrious 7nan ;" &n<\ "A lady who is prudent," equivalent to 'Vl prudent Inly."
§ 5. Adverbial elements embrace all adverbs, words, phrases
and clauses used adverbially ; as,
(l)"Shc walks fjracrfully.'" (2) " CJho.sts troop Jwrne." (3) " They
went into the country.'' (4) " Wc po to church ?/•/« n the clod- strikes ten.^*
Gracefully, in the lirst example, limits the prcilicatc waUs, by pointing
out the Mm/iHfr of its action. Home, in the second example, is used ad-
vcrbiallj', and modifies the predicate by pointing out the frcne of its ac-
tion. In the third example, into the country is a j)hra.se used adverbially,
and limits the predicate by pointing out the scene of its actions. When
th« clock at rike» ten, \n the fourth example, is a clause used adverbially,
and modifies the predicate ;/o by pointing out the time tchcn of its action.
§ 6. Connective elements embrace all conjunctions, preposi-
tions, relative pronotins, conjunctive adverbs, and attributive
verbs.
Connective elements are divided into two classes — co-ordinate and subor.
dinate. ' <.;,!•
The co-ordinate unite words or clauses of equal rank or order in con-
truction. , . , . , ,
The subordinate unite words, phrases or ckuses of inferior rank or order
in construction.
Ppy I To the former, most of the conjunctions belong. Relative pronouns,
prepositions, and conjunctions belong to the latter.
Kem. 2. Conneqtive elements, as they are not the signs of ideas, but the relation
of ideas, can-not be said philosophically to belong to the olements of a sentence.
Rkm. 3. T^e elements ot a. sentence piay consist of single irortZs, phrases, or
CL.VUSES. ■ .-,,■,
When a .^/n"/' ic«rrf is used as a constituent part ofa sontenqe, it is called an
element" of the;?r«/ class ; a phrase used as an element is of the second cIjss ; and a
clause used as an element is of the third class.
gf.j,_ 4 h phrase consists of two or more words united in one element, contain-
ing no affirmation; as, " Jn those days" a clause contains an affirmation ; as.
" When he comcs." The following sentence contains the three classe.- of elements :
«' That nolle tJeneral, who had gai.ed so many victories, died in prison." That, noble,
&t\d General are each elements of the frst class, bcr-iiise e>vch. though a sii.ple
word, i? used a* a constituent part of the sentence. Who had gained so many ric-
toric's, is an adjectivj element of the third class, because it is a clause cont.tining a.
auhiect and predicate ; it limit? the su-ject, General, by poiotins out xcknt General
is icant. Died is the predicate, and is also an element of theirs/ class. //, prison
is an adverbial element of the second class. because it is a phase. It limits the pnd-
icate bv pointing out the scene of its action. » , .u
Rfm'. i>.— It should be ot.strrved that each wcrd^contained in an element ot the
«econt/ '.r r/iirt/ elass, bns a construction of its own. -hich construction i-hr.uld he
pointed out in parsing, though all the words comkined roike but on? clem r t ; this
will appear obvious t. the attentive student from the fact thi; these clemenU are
susceptible of being reduced to an element of the first clabs, or tingle word, without
affecting the modification in the least.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 29
•
RE^r. 6. — It win readily he perceived that in each of bucIi elenipnts there is some
laa(lin,<T word to which the others cluster, and whieh may be called the base of tho
element. , ^
§ 7. These five elements may be diviTlcJ witli reference to
their importance intb two kinds— Principal and SuIjordixate.
The subject and predicate are es'^ential to the existence of a proposition
or a sentence ; as, " \ran is mortal." In this sentence, Mtai is the Huhject —
is, logicaIl)T considered, is called the copiiln, and connects the subject and
predicate, and mortal is the logical i^rcdicate ; but is mortal is regarded as
the grammatical prgdicatc.
§ 8. Subject, from the Latin Suhjectus=pla(jed under, is the
foundation word of a sentence or proposition, or that concern-
ing which an affirmation is made.
The simple or grammatical subject consists of a single' word: as, " Life
is short." ♦
The complex or logical subject consists of the grammatical -subject and
air the words, phrases, or clauses which modify it ; as, " 27ie law of the Lord
is perfect."
§ 9. I^redicate, from the Latin Predico=to say, is that whicli
is affirmed or denied of the subject; as, '^ Paper is tvhite."
^^ I)ilc is 7iot tvhite." *
The grammatical or siniple predicate consi.-its of the verb, q't verb to he
and attribute ; as, "The Irini flics." " Tlie weather is cold."
The complex or logical predicate consists of the grammatical, predicate
and all the elements which qualify it ; as, " Grass grows in great ahundancc."
llioxr. 1. -'-The predicate is simple when ii; consi.«ts of a single word; as, ".'^now
falls," that i.s, snow is falling It is eompound when it consists of two or more
worls, united by a coordinate connective ; as, " Kingdoms rise and fall:— uniX it is
complex when it consists of two or more elements connected by a subordinate con-
nective ; as, " He lives in great affiaence."
Of the subject, may bo predicated action, quality and identity ; as " The
Jioi'se runs." " The man is goody "John is a student^
Rem. 2. — In some cases it is said that cxistrnre only is predicated ; as, " Deux est,"
there is a God, i. e., God exists, or G'd is existing ; but, as all verbs', philosophically
speaking, express «c<(0»J, it will be sufficiently correct to sny rtc/(o« is predion rd,
even where the verb to be is employed ; as, " lie is, I ani." i. e , He is living. I am
living, or breathing ; hence we say, when one is dead, he is not, i. t., ho is not
living or breathing.
Rem. 3. — It is also said that possession is sometimes predicated of the subject ; PS
"The kingdom is thine." To this wc have no particular dbjoctions ; though, ac-
cording to Dr. Webster's view— to wliich wo sub6eribe---//////r is a substitute for
thy kingdom, or thy possession j ideniilij, then, is predicated even in this case.
30 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
§ 10. All the subordinate elements belong either to the sub-
ject or predicate. ^
An element is said to l^elone; to the suV)ject or predicate directly, when
it modifies the subject or predicate, and indirectly, when it modifies the
subject or predicate through the niediuin of some other element; as, ''This
day is very mxich ipoy^old." Cold modifies the subject directly ; but the
elements very, much, and too, modify the subject indirectly through the
medium of the element cold. Very qualifies rmich — much qualifies too, and
too, qualifies cold.
- Hem. 1.— Such words as very, much, and too are geuorally parsed as ndverbs , l»ut,
when thoir accumulated, modifying influence affects the subject or some other s«6^
sinntivc element, through the medium of some other element which has, so to speak,
a f^rammatical affinity for a substantive element, it would be more philosophical to
re>;ard them as secondary adjcctirts ; but, if these and similar words send their
modifying influence to the 7;ic(Z/faie, through the medium of some other element
which has a grammaticlfl aflinity for the /;rc(/ica/<? or verbal element, they may be
pr' perly regarded as adverbs or secondary adverbs ; as, " A very good pen writes
upj (/ well." The first very, in this sentence, modifies g'oorf; then according to the
vi. w just given, very is a secondary adjective element; but very good, taken
to I'ther, is a complex adjective element, and limits pen, by pointing out its quality.
Tlip second very limits ivell directly, and the predicate writes indirectly through
thi medium of ity/i: hence it may be called a secondary adverbial olement ; but
1,-';^/ Jcc/Z, taken together, ia a, complex adverbial element, and limits the predicate
• by ('ointiog out the manner of its action.
CHAPTER V. •
THE ANALYSIS O^ SEN,TENCES.
§ 1. The analysis of a sentence consists in resolving it into
its constituent pnrts or elements — in naming each element ac-
cording to the office it performs— the class to which it belongs,
and by pointing out the change of meaning produced by its
modifying influence.
]' KM. 1 . — Before entering upon the regular and systematic analysis of sentences, tho
ant :ior has found it advantageous to lead the pupil into the analysis by appropriate
que tions, such as tlie following. " The gentlemnn who visited me, has gone into
the country." What kind of a sentence is this? Complex. Why/ Because it
cortains a subordinate^ ox modifying rZa(/s«— united by a subordinate connective.
Wbntisthe subject? Gentleman. \yhy ? Because something is said or affirmed
ofir. What is affirmed of it ? Has gone. What, then, is Aas ^o;/e? The predicate.
Whv? Because it is rt#mjed ff the Si;6;'ec<. What is predicated ? Action. What
ele icnts limit the si/bjecf ? The and who visited me. What kind ot an element
is/.'(c/ An adjectiv-c element of the _^rs^ class. Why of the /rsf class ? Because
it i> a sit'gle ico/^ used as an element of the sentence. V/hat does it point out ?
It ]H ints out gentleman dtjinitely. What gentleman ? The gentleman who visited me.
Wl. at kind of an element, then, is who visited me ? It is an adjective element of
the third class. Why an adjeetivive clement? Because it limits a substantive
element. What does it point out ? What gentlemari, is meant. Why of the third
cla>s ? Because it if a clause. What is necessary to constitute a clause ? A sith-
ject and predicate. The gcntlemas has gone — where? Into Uf^ covntiy. What
kin 1 of an element, tben, is into the country ? Adveibial. Why? Because it modi-
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAU. 3 1
ties ihc predicate- What does it point' oijj;? The scfne of \ts action. — has gone into
the country. Of wha,t class ? The second. Why? Bocause it is & phrase What
is necessary to •constitute a p/jrns^ ? Two or tnore \y)rds united In one o'ement
containing no aflSrmation. '
3[odel 1st. "Those beautiful birds sing vcy sweetly." This is a S8??7;)?c
sentence, because it contains but one siihject and predicate, modified by
elements of the. first class. Those is an adjective element ofthe^/irst class,
and limits Inrd^ by pointing it out in the most definite manner. Beaut l/ul
is an adjective element of the ^/f7'S^ class, and limits the subject birds by
pointing out its quality. Birds is the stthject, because something i^snid
OT a tf I rmed of it. Sings is the predicate, hacAase affirmed of the subject,
actior, being predicated. Very sioeeily is a complex adverbial element, and
modifies the predicate by pointing out the manner of its action.
■ Model 2d. "Joseph fled with the young child into the land of Egypt."
This sentence is partially complex ; since the predicate is modified by a
complex element ; but, as it contains but one subject and predicate, such
sentences arc generally considered simple. JnHeph is the subject of this
sentence, because something is said or affirmed of it. J^led rs \.\w jjredicate,
because afTirmed of the subject, ac</(?ft bein :; predicated. With the young
child is an adrerbidl element of the second class, and modifies the jtvedicatCy
by pointing out the^'«rw?i.? in company. Into the land is also an adverbial
element of the second class, and limits the predicate by pointing out the
scens of its action. Of Egypt is an adjective element of the second class,
and limits Lmd by pointing out lohat land is meant.
Rem. 1. — Into the land of Egypt, may bo analyzed as a complex' adverbial eleme-
ment ; but. while into th< land is strictly iidverbial, as a modifier of the jiredicale
land, con.-^idercd in ils relati't. to other oleraonts, retains its sub.itantive character,
and, as such, niiiy ho modified by an adjective ehment. As the former mode of anily
sis render3*tlie sense clearer, it is, in most cases, to be prefcrrc'.
Modeled. "That hot climates shorten human life'is reasonable to sup-
pose." That hot climates shorten humah life, is a substantive element of
the third class, and is the subject of the proposition, and is thus par.sed:
That hot c/imatt's shorten human life, is a substantive clause, and is the
subject of the verb is, according to rule. Is is the verb 9.nd copula— hut
is reasonable is the grammatical predicate, quality bomg predicated. To
s^jppose is a verbal element oftlie secdnd class, and liaiits reasonable by
com()leting its meSning, and, in this respect, partakes of the nature of an
adverbial element.
V.r.M. I. — It is worthy of remark that to, the sign of the infinitive, has something
of the nature of a proposition, as mnj' bo seen in the following sentence!?. '' Ho
offered die for his friends." " He wont join the army" Every one must perceive
thewant of conrieciion in these sentiences, and that there is a striking rcsemblanco
between them and the .sentences in which the preposition is omitted; as, " He went
ch'jrch." Too wnut of conneccion is as obvi-us in the lormer as in the latter, and
that to must bo supplied in each Kontenne in order to complete the sense. Thu.-<.
" Ho offered to die tor his friends." " He went to join thd army." -" He went to'
church." Honca some grammari ms have boL-n led to call to, the sign of rhe inSni-
tivo, a, pr(:pu.<tition ; (see Goold Browi.'s Grammar).
Rkm 2 — Tho substantive clause, or substantive element of the third class, is fre-
quently used as the predicate nouiinative; as, " My prayer to God, is, that Israel
might be saved." Prayer, in tins sentence, is the grammatical subje-t, and my
prayer to God is the log cdl subject ; is is the copula, and that Israel might be saved,
lilr pudi • tive.
;"" ' iiatever is, is rij^ht" This is a complcv sentence, &c.
Whatceci- ucuiij regarded as a substitute for whatever thing, in the subject.
dJ ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
because pomcthing is said or afijrmed of it. Which is is an adjective element
o[' the third class, and limits the subject b}' pointing out ichat thing is meant.
Is right is the gniumiatical predicate, qnaUty bcin^ predicated. The sen-
tence rendered plenary, reads thus, " \Vhatever thing which is, is right." ■
Model 5t7i. " I looked downward where a hundred realms appear.'^
Where a hundred realms appear is the subordinate clause, used as an ele-
ment of the sentence. It is an adverbial element of the thii'd class, and
bmits the predicate loolced by pointing out the scene of its action. But, in
the following sentence, a similar clause is an adjecUve element. "There is
a land where saints immortal reign." In this sentence, where saints im-
mortal reign, limits Zaju?, a substantive clement, by pointing out what Icmd
is meant.
Rem. 1 — The aiijsctive clause in such cases may be distinguislied from tlie tidvcr-
bial bj its iidmitiifig a diflferent constructiDi). Thus, "There is a laad /« which
saints immortal reitju." Wo cannot sa^, " I looked in which a hundred reslms ap-
pear."
Model Q>th, " The sun having risen, we pursued our journey." The case
absolute with Words depen<ling on it, is called by Dr. Webster, the clause
ahsolute or independent. (Juided by this authority, we may dispose of it
as follows. 27ie sun Jiaving risen, having but little grammatical connec-
tion with the rest of the sentence, is not regarded as an elcnient of the
sentence. It will be found, howevtr, that such a phrase or clause is near-
ly equivalent'lo a subordinate clause, approaching very near to the force
of an allirmation. Thus, '■'■ After the snnhad rit<cn, we pursued our jour-
ney." Viewed in this light, it may be analyzed as an element of the second
or third class, generally limiting the predicate of the leading clause by
pointing out the time or some other circumstance respecting the affirmation.
"I being in great haste, he consented " In this sentencp, / ieing in great
haste, is nearly cfjuivalent to, As I icas in great haste, &c.
Rem. 1. — As the case independent^nd interjections have no grammatical con»
Btruction in a sentence, they are not regarded as elements.
MJdellth. "Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles, suffered martyrdom
at Rome." As the case in apposition limits the word which it identities,
by pointing out its character, profession, or vocation, it is an adjective
element in ■this respect; but it retains its substantive character in respect
to otiier elemints. Apostle is a substantive element, usW adjeclively, and
limits the sul ject Paui by pointing out its character ; but the great apostle
of the Gentiles may be analyzed as a complex adjective element of the sec-
ond class, limiting Paul; for it is equivalent to a relative clause. Thus,
"Paul, who was the great apjostle of the Gentiles^ suffered martyrdom at
Rome."
Model Sth. "He gave me good instruction." Me or to me is an adverbial
element, and limits the predicate by pointing out the indirect object of its
action.
' Model ^th. "I will go if you will accompany me." If you will acG0ii\-
pa'hy me, is a subordinate clause, or an advtihial element of the third class,
and modiScs the predicate orill no by pointing out the condition of its
affirmation. *
Rem. 1. — That this clause is adccy'ui'l will be readily preceived by eoiiStruing the
sentence as loHows. '' I will go <.n condition that y'V will accomjj.iny me." T^^e
sius'j is tiie same as that ot tbe former eonstruotion — but, in the 'latter constructitn,
the adverbial charai;ter of the clause i.-: undeniable.
Rem. 2.- - Guided by the models already given, and more especially by the sense,
* CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 33
tt is belicvod that tho attentive studont will be able to, analyze any well constructed
sentence.
Logical Axalvsis.
, Jf/Hlel. " AlII animals which feed on flesh, are carnivorou'=." All animals
which feed oiiJle/<h, is ll»e logical nuhjccl, because it is that part of the sen-
tence of which thcaflinii;\tion is made. Are is the copula, and connects the
sabjoct and predicate. Carnivorous is the logical predicate, quality being
predicated.
Rem. 1.— The copula is often included in the predicate; ae, tho Romans con-
quered/' i. c , the Romans were conquering or wore victorious-
Examples for PitACiicG.
Thej'- who sow in tears, .shall reap in joy. Time slept on flowens, and
lent his glasses to hope. My friends visit uic very often at my father's
aflicc. Tike Canary bird sings very sweetly. A very bad pen will not writ&
well. The lady who instructed me is an excellent scholar. I am, through
the lavv, dead to the law. God created the heavens and the earth in six days.
The Lord into his garden comes,
The spices yield a rich perfume,
l^e lilies grow and thrive ;
Refreshing showers of grace divine,
From Jesus, How to every vine,
Which make the dead revive.
Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night ehoweth knowledge.
Birds fly in the air. To seek God, is wisdom. Thou who hast been a
witness of the fa(!t, canst state it, Henry Claj' was an eminent orator.
"When I brought his arms to Ciothar, day was descending in the West.
Eliza will improve, if she study. Foolishness is bound up in the heart of
a child. Where the robber concealed his stolen treasures, has never been
ascertained. That j^ou have wronged me doth appear in this. That the
earth is a sphere, is easily proved. The day having closed, both armies
rctin-ned to theiz' camps. That no man is justified by the lavv in the
sight of God, is evident. Wo stootl upon the ground where the battle was
fought. How wc shall obtain means, is a question which has not been
satisfactorily answered. My son, give me thy heart.. When we are sutfer-
ing puiii, how slowly the hours pass away ! Flowers grow in the garden,
and grass, in the field. Godsaid, "I t'lke no pleasure in the death of the
wicked."
CHAPTER VI.
CONSTRUCTION OP ELEMENTS.
§ 1. Substantive elements enter into the construction of sen-
tences in three relations, namely — subject, possessor, and object.
(The constructiun of the subject and predicate, has already been
discussed.)
The pos.se.ssivc clement is always construed before the word which it
limits; as, John's book." "///s hat." The objective elemerfl, in the uat-
34 ANALYTICAL, ILLL .->1kai !\ r. ..no
ural order of ccnstruction, is construed after tl'f verbal element which it
limits ; as, "I met him in the street." But this nrder is frequently in-
Terted; as '■'■ Ilim that is weak in the faith, receive ye."
Rkm. 1. — A a English nouns havo no hiflection fn diftiiiguish the nommative from
the objecti-ve. care inust^be lakm to jireverit, .'iin^iuuitj in Ihbir coDStruition. The
following senti'ni-.oe are auibiguous. " l'jrrbi)s the Kom:i7i8 shall conquer." " A
second deluge learning thus o'erran." In the first scri'ence it is not certain wheth-
er Pynhus shall conquer the Romans, or tuo Uoujiti.? l*yrrbu»j. The ainbigaity in
such sentences iu«y easily be prevented > y consttuinjf the objectt-vc elctoout after the
word which it limiis. Ihuo, " A eecoud deluge thus o'erri^n learning."
§ 2. Adjective elements of any kind are construed with sub-
stantive elements. Specifying adjectives, including drticles,
are generally construed l)cf©re substuntive elements ; as, " The
man. That man." This rule> however, is not invariable ; as,
" Miserable comforters are you a//"
"When a .^specifying cand a qualifying adjective are both used, the specify-
ing adjective is generally placed first in the oidcr of construction ; as,
" Those tall treeg."
Rkm. 1. — When EUfh spocifyinp adjcrtivc,^ jis tin- d.rind from i)roper names ar»
coMstruod with qualifying ndjectiros, the qualifying iidjociive is placed fir^tin the
order of conijtruction; as, " llenry Claj, the great Aincrican orator, is numbered
with the dead."
Rkm. 2 — When the elements all and the are construed with the same subgtantiv©
clement, all is placed first; as, " All the men w»ro there.**
I
When an adjective elerncnt of the first class is' a.ssumed o( the subject,
. ■ some other substantive* element, it is penerally construed before it; as,
A havdisomc lady ;" but when it is predicated of the subject, it is general-
ly construed aiter'it; as, "That lady is hmKhomeV If, however, the ad-
jective is emphatic, it is construed before the subject; as, " Good and «p-
/•/'//(Hs the Lord."
Participles, used as adjective elements, are construed after the substan-
tive elements to which they refer ; a.^ " I see a man laborimj.'"
Adjective elemonls of the isect)iid and ihird classes are almost invariably
construed after the elements which they li^iii ; as, "The fear of the
Lord.'^ " The man iclio is indastrio^isy
j^fjj. ). In order to jyevcnt ambiguity, the rolative claupe .«bould be^corstrued
as near to the word which it limits as potsible. When the relative is the subject of
its own clause, it is placed first in the order of construction ; as, " The boy who
learns his lesson." When lb* relative is thd wotjeit of the verb, it is also placed
first and the tubject of the clause is construed between it and the verb ; as, " The
hoy' whom I instructed learns well." liut, if the relaiive is governed by a preposi-
tion, it is more elegant to construe the prepcsitiou before it ; a*, " I saw the lady
icrt/t ic/io)7J jou walked." The relative that, however, does not admit of such a
construction ; hence, we must say, " I saw the lady that you walked with.'.'
Hem. 2. — Specifying adjective* limit nouns, but do n.t express quality; as, " That
tree." Qualiiying adjectives both limit nouns and f xpress some ^aa/t/y belonging
to tbem : r.s, ""That tree is tall." Tali not ooly exprrssej the quality of tree, but
it also so limits it fl at the tree can nut belong to any clai.s of trees that aie low.
(See Adject! res.)
§ ;'. Adverbial elements are .constriK \erbnl elements
eiiuor dirccrly or indirectly. Pirectly ; a . ' • !e hibvrs faith-
fully.'' Ii^irectly ; as, "He labors very faithfully.'' Very
C ON-STRCCTIVE GRAMMAR. 35
modifies tke predicate labors indirectly through the medium of
the element fa it hfuU I)' .
No precise rules can be given for the construction of adverbial elements
of the first kincl. The best rule that crin be given is, to so construe. them
as will best jiroraote the euphony and perspicuity of the sentence.
AdVorbial elements of the second and third kinds aregeneraHy construed
after the predicate, or bet ween its parts, when it consists of two words ; as,
"Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, placed in Ills oion
hanJsy " We had heard the news he/ore the messenger arrived.''''
P. KM. 1 — This order is frequently inverted ; as, '• In tho days of Jorara, kiug of
Israel, iloarished Elisha the prophet."
ABRIDGEMENT OF ELEMENTS.
§ 4. Tho abridgement of elements consists in reducing a com-
plex element to a simple one, or the changing of an element of
the second kind to one of the first kind, and a changin:; of an
element of the third kind, to one of the first or second kind ; as,
" A gentleman of J^nijlaiid " — (changed) an EnglUh gentle-
map. " A la^y of ^7yicric?a " — an American lady, " A man
who is hanest Svill be relied upon, trusted and esteemed " —
(changed to an element of the second kind) A man of lionesty
.will be relied upon, etc. An honest man.
j'xAJirLEs Koit Practice.
A horse ot Arabia. A man of industry. The house of my friend —
<(my friend's house.) A lady who is prudent will be vespcnted. The man
who i.s industrious will gain a competency. He who studies will iTijj-.rove.
He is a jnan of wealth. The law ol the Lord is perfect. Tlic way of
transgressors is hard. He is in a me;;sure recovered. The young b.dies
whom I instructed. Ho found the kiiife which was lost. The day oi" bat-
tle is at hand — (abridged) The bat'leday is near. Tiic ■■i-c" <••' ♦i- t -i
•came down. The end of alllhings is at hand.
Rem. 1. — When' the relative c)au.se rontjiins an adji^etive, it can bo chanji^en in an
element of the second el.-i-s.s by the use of a nnun of kindred weaning ami jinipoFi-
tion, and to one of the_^rsS elnss by ns.'^uniinjr tho .'idjectivc of the elenieni, v. h • !i
the clau.se limits; as, •• K\n.<\y wlio is 'prudent " — (changed) A lady of pmidairc- •»
prudent lady. When the robUive clause contains no adjective, and the refativf -i
a .subject ot its own ol.iuse, it is abrids^ei by usinj^ the iinporfnct paMi-iplo in i '<
stead; as, " The boy who studies- will karn" — (changed) Tho boy studying, wi'l
learn. But, if the relative ii< the object of tho verb of its own clause, it is abri ' ;
by tho u.oe of the perfect participle; a.«, " The boy tvham I instruchd, improve^ ' -
(abridj;;od) The boy instrudrd by me, iiQf)rovo?.
Rem. 2. — As thepovvor to a^jfidL") eleinenrs is of ffrcai practical imp'Ttanco to all
"who aspire to high lingual aitgimncnts. tluse exercises should not \)<- patsod over
slightly, but closdy studied till mastered. Tho teacher' can easily stipply other
e samples.
36 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
CHAPTER yiT.
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES INTO CL A.tTS.ESAND PHR AS E S .
§ 1. Clauses of Sentences may be divided into throe kindsy
viz., the leaditig, the co-ordinate, and the subordinate, or mod-
ifying clause.
Tiie leading clause contains the principal subject and predi-
cate, and in the natural order of English construction, stands
first in the sentence. This order is however frequently trans-
posed— the modifying clause occupying the iirst place.
The co-ordiuate claiuse asserts an additional fact which may
be expressed by an independent sentence.
The subordinate or modifying clause modifies some other
element of the sentence and is generally an adverbial or ad-
jective element.
A phrase is distinguished from a clause by its having neither
subject nor predicate ; consequently containing no affirmation.
f^Y.M. 1. Tho term member, in this work, is indiscriminately applied both to claufes
and phrases.
11i;m. 2. — Mr- James Brown calls this kind of analysis Monology. (See Ameri-
can Syntitbolojry by Jas. Brown.)
j^K^j. 3. This kind of analysis is important, since it constitutes the basis of a
rcular and thorough construction of sentences.
§ 2. The words which give new members may be called con-
nectives or memh^r-givers. These member-givers or connectives
may be divided into two classe", viz., coordinate and subordinate.
The co-ordinate unite members of equal rank in construction.
They areawci, hut^ or, nor, yet, and though, used in the sense of
but or vet'. The subordinates are such as join members or
elements of subordinate rank in construction ; they are too nu-
merous to give a full list ; the following are a few, viz., as, be-
cause, if, ^«*^ since, when, who, which, in, into, under, over^
above, beneath, &c. •
Model.
1
[True cheerfulness makes a man happy] (in himself,) (and promotes the
12 3
happiness) (of all) (who are) (around him.)
It will be perceived that the words contained in each member of the
above sentence have an inseparable constructive relation to each other, and^.
in parsing, must be disposed of in their own membera respectively.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 37
CHAPTER VIII.
CON3TKUCTION OF SENTENCES.
r
Rbh. — Because of the striking resemblance between the Construction of the
several parts of a sentence and the frame-work of a tree, Mr. James Brown denomi-
nates such construction Dendrology.
§ 1. In order to realise all the advantages arising from the
Construction of sentences as illustrated by the frame-work of a
tree, we should have respect to the order, notation, integritj/y
rank, B,nA position of elements of the second and third kinds.
§ 2. There are two orders — Trunk and Branch.
A member of the Trunk •rder must contain the subject and predicate
and all elements of the jirst kind which modify them or that member of
the sentence which can stand alone or make sense independent of the other
parts.
A member of the branch order depends upon the trunk member in con-
struction, or upon some other branch member, with which it has an insep<
arable, constructive relation.
§ 3. Notation, from the Latin notatio, a mark, respects the
actual expression of all or only a part of the words of a member.
There are two Notations — Plenary and Implenary.
A member is of the plenary notation, when all the words belonging to it
are written.
A member is of the implenary notation, when some of the words which
belong to it are not written.
§ 4. Integrity, from the Latin integritas, an unbroken state
of members, respects itsentireness or unbroken state. There
are two Integrities — Perfect and Imperfect.
»
The Perfect Integrity is the entireness produced by the juxta-position
of all its words ; as, "[He gave an apple] (to me.)"
A member is of the Imperfect Integrity when it is broken by the inter-
vention of some other member; as, [He gave (to me) an apple.]
§ 6. Rank of members is the frame>-work grade which the
subs derive from their supers. The number of Ranks may be
said to be indefinite — some sentences having more and some less.
A member is of the first rank when it is construed with the trunk for its
super, of the second rank when it reads with a member of the first rank, of
the third, when with one of the second, and of the fourth when with one
of the third, and so on.
§ 6. The position of a member respects the place which it
occupies in relation to its super or supers.
The positions are juxta, disjuxta, and binal.
38
ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND
A member is of the juxta position when it is placed -next to its super in
the order of construction.
A member is of the disjuxta position when it is separated from its super.
The binal position includes both the juxta and disjuxta positions.
1 1
Rem. 1. — " [^heat grows] (in the field,) (and men reap it.)" In this sentence, in
the. field ia of tho,;wa:<a position, because placed next to its super. Men reap it has
the same super, wheat grows ; but it is separated from its super ; it is, therefore,
disjuxta position. Wheat grows and men reap.
1
Reh. 2. — " [Peter wa» the brother] (of Andrew,) (but he was not the brotlfer)
3
(of John )" In this sentence, huChe leas', not tTie brother, depenls upon two mem-
bers for its supers, in order to complete the senpe. It is disjuxta in r6«pect to the
trunk, juxta in respect to the branch ; then it is binal posiiion ;* since it includes
both the juxta and dirjuxta positions.
I
§ 7. A super is that member which, in rank, is directly abovo
that member ■which is annexed to it.
A sub is that member -which, in rank, is directly below that
member to which it is annexed.
Fia. 1.
In Construction, the verbal frame-work
of a sentence is illustrated by the frame-
work of a tree, (Fig. 1,) as in the follow-
ing sentence :
1 1
[A certain Emperor (of China), (on his acces.
2 3
eion) (to the throne) (of his auceetors), command-
1 2
ed a general release] (of all those) (who had
3
been imprisoned) (for debt.)
A certain Emj^eror commanded a gen-
eral release^ is a member of the trunk
order, plenary notation, imperfect integ-
^ ritj, and of the affirmative kind, because
it expresses the highest degree of verbal
force. Of China, is a member of the
branch order, plenary notation, perject
integrity, first rank, juxta position, and
super ; thus, A certain Emperor q/' China
On his accession is a member of the branch
order, plenary notation, perfect integrity, tirst rank, disjuxta 2'osition, and
reads with the trunk ibr its super. A certain Emperor commanded a gen-
eral release on h is accession. To the throne, is a member of the branch
order, plenary notation, perfect integrity, seeond rank, juxta position, and
reads with a member of the first rank for its super. On his accession to
the throne. Of his ancestors, is a member of the branch order, plenary
notation, perfect integrity, third rank, and juxta position, and reads with
the second rack for its super. To the throne of his ancestors. Of all
those persons, is a member of the branch order, implenary notation, perfect
integrity, first rank, juxta position, and reads with the trunk for its super.
A certain Emperor commanded a general release of all those persons. Who
reads with the trunk for its
commanded a general release.
♦See American Syntithology, by Jamea Brown.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.* 39
had ieen impriso7ied, is a member orthe branch order, plenary notation,
perfect integrity, second rank, juxta position, and reads with a member of
the first rank for its super. Of all those who had been, imprisoned.
For debt, is a member of the branch order, plenary notiiliun, perfect integ-
rity, third rank, and juxla position, and reads with the second rank for its
sup&r. Who had been imprisoned /(??• debt.
By inspecting the Diagram, the learner will perceive that branches No,l
depend directly upon the trunk or leading clause, that branches No. 2 de-
pend directly upon No. 1, and that those of No. 8 depend directly upon
No. 2, but that all depend directly or indirectly upon the trunk or leadmg
member.
CHAPTER IX.
XLLIQATION OF SENTENCES.
§ 1. Alligation, from the Latin Alligo, to bind, is the art
of binding together the component parts of a sentence by lines
which indicate the government, relation and connection of the
several parts.
Lines which indicate government are drawn ©ver ; all others are drawn
under, as in the toUowing diagram :
Fio. 2.
Line 1 shows Henry governs ircnt, and reads with it — Henry went. Linfe'
2 shows xcith conn&cts went and me, and reads with them— went with me.
Line 3 shews that with governs me, and reads with it — with me. Line 4
shows that to connects tccnt and shij>, and reads wijh them— went to shii^.
Line 5 shows «o governs .s^/jy, and reads with it— went to ship. Line &
shows that the belongs to .s7(?>, and reads with it— the ship.
The object of this exercise is not only to give an ocular illustration of
the varioiis grammatical connections and relations which words bear to each
other in a sentence, but also to show that words which are grammatically
related to each other make sense when read together.
Rem. 1.— When any word has a gTainmatical connection with but one o'ft-^r word
m a sentence, it may be called ^mi idio&i i>eculiar to one ; as, Henry and the in the
above example. But, when a word is grammatically related to more words than
one, it is plus idios, peculiar to more than one ; as with, to, Ac.
Rem. 2.— As pupils are generally prone to fall into a mere mechanical mode "f
parsing irrespective of the sense, exercises in Alligation shoulJ bo continued tiil
the h.abit is formed of testing every word by its grammatical relation or relations
to other words in the sentence. For this purpose, such sentences .should be writt< n
upon the blackboard or slate as can be written iu one line. Then let th* pupi«
40 AI^ALYTICAL ILLUSTRATIVE AND
conn&ct the words as exhibited in the above example, and read them in their res-
pective relutioDE, before parsing the sentence.
Examples f#r Practice.
The hours of the day glide swiftly away. The old fox heard thelianter'a
horn sounding. They rode into the country. John has gone with his
sister to town. The Roman women ence bestowed their precious jewels to
save the city. I see a man walking through the fields. The sun shines
upon all men. Pharaoh pursued the children of Israel. The earth re-
volves on its own axis. Flowers bloom in the spring. Jesus went into
Galilee. Birds fly into the air. Fishes swim in the sea.
CHAPTER X.
SYSTEMATIC ORDEK OF PARSING.
§ 1 . As parsing is intended to accompany Construction and
' Alligation, before giving the regular models of Construction,
the following examples are presented as models for parsing :
" [The man {who instructs you,) labors faithfully^'
The is a definite arficlc, and belongs to the noun man, according to Rule
14. Man is a common noun, masculine gender, third person, singular
number, and in the nominative case to the verb labors, according to Rule 1.
Who is a relative pronoun, masculine gender, third person, singular num-
ber, and agrees with man for its antecedent, according to Rule 12, and in
the nominative case to the verb instructs, according to Rule 1. Instructs
is a regular transitive verb, active voice,* indicative mode, present tense,
and of the third person, singular, because its nominative tcho is, according
to Rule 6. You is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, and
in the objectiyo case, and governed by the verb instructs, according to
Rule 1 9. Labors is a regular, intransitive verb, indicative mode, present
tense, third person, singular, because its nominative man is, according to
Rule 6. Faithfully is an adverb and modifies labors, according to Rule 25.
" iTarnes took what he wanted.'^
What,'m such constructions as the above, is generally parsed as a com-
pound relative pronoun — equivalent to that which or the thing which ; but
whether resolving it into two other words and excluding what from the
sentence is really parsing what, is a question for grammarians to decide.
By rendering the sentence plenary, it will be clearly seen that what is sim-
ply a specifying adjective ; thus, Janoes took what thing it was which he
wanted.
" / saw a man leading his horse over the yiew bridged
Leading is an imperfect participle, derived from the verb to had, and
refers to the noun man, according to rule 18. Over is a preposition, and
connects leading and bridge, and shows the relation between them. New
is a qualifying adjective, in the positive degree, and belongs to bridge, ac-
cording to Rule 15.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 41
" James, I desire yon. to study T
James is a proper noun, IlK^^culine gender, second person, singular, and
in the nominative case indufietident, according to Rule 27. To study is a
regular, transitire verb, active voice, infinitive mode, present tense, and is
governed by you, according to Rule 5.
" / heinr/ in great haste, he consented.''''
/is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, and in the nomi-
natir* case absolute, according to Rule 28.
CHAPTER XI
DIRECTIONS FOR RENDERING SENTENCES PLENARY.
§ 1. Men, in their intercoursQ with each other, and more es-
pecially in the business transactions of life, are wont to utter
their sentiments, both in speaking :ind writing, as concisely as
possible; hence many words are omitted or not expressed, which
must be supplied in construction and parsing in order to un-
derstand the full import of the sentence, and to enable the
learner to parse correctly those words which are expressed.
The leading clause of a sentence is generally plenary or full, imperative
and petitionative sentences generJiUy excepted; the subordinate cl.mse is
also generally plenary, so far as it respects its subject and predicate ; since
it must have a subject and predicate of its own ; but a co-ordinate clause is
frequently implenary ; since the same subject or predicate, used in tho
leading clause, may be continued in a co-orninate clause. If a new gubject
or predicate is to be introduced in a co-ordidinate clause, the writer or
speaker is bound to express it ;" for such new subject or predicate can not
be ascertained by any law of construction whatever. Then, if either the
subject or predicate, or both, be omitted in a co-ordinate or subsequent
clause, they miiat be supplied from the leading clause, with no alteration,
except a pronoW should be used instead of a noun. In the following sen-
tences, the svl)jcct is understood in the first, the predicate in the second,
and both predicate and siilject in the third. (1). " A certain man planted
a vineyard, and set a hedge'ahout it "—(rendered plenary. A certain man
planted a vineyard, and he set a hedge nbout it. (2). "These shall go away
into everlasting punishment; but tiie righteous into life eternal "—(ren-
dered plenary) but the righteous t<hnU <jo into life eternal. (3). " Man shall
not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the
mouth of God "—(rendered plenary) but he fthall lire, etc.
If a subordinate clause is compound, it follows the same rule ; as, " He,
who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows out
that plan, {i. e„ who follows, etc.,) carries on a thread," etc. Those mem-
bers which contain nouns, used adverbially, such as tivie, dimemion, val-
uation, home, etc., are generally implenary, having some preposition under-
stood ; as, " He went home," i. e., to home. "She walks every morning,"
42 ANALYTICAL, ILEOSTBATrVE AND"
w i. e,, on every morning. "His hat is worth a dollar," i. e., t?/" a -dollar, etc.
(See Peculiar Construction.)
When an indirect object of a verb is placed first in tlie order of construc-
tion, the member containing it is generally implenary ; as. " He sent me .1
book," i. e„ He sent a book to me. "My father bought me a horse," i. e.,.
He bought a hovse/o7' me. As the preposition through implies something
of the nature of a medium, through which something is transmitted, its
antecedent term, though often suppre.ssed, is generally a verb or participle^
and should be supplied in construing; as, " The gift of God is eternal life
through our Lord Jesus Christ" — (rendered plenary) The gift of God i»
eternal life which cometh through our Lord Jesus Christ. Again : " By
grace are ye saved through faith," i. e.. Ye are saved by grace wliich cometh'
through faith.
The limits of this work will not allow us to presecute this subject fur-
ther; it is hoped, however, that enough has been said to enable the philo-"
Sophie student' to prosecute it with success.
Models fo» Constrvction.
1 13
Model yst. [Day (unto day) uttereth speech], (and night (unto night),
showeth knowledge). »
This sentence is compound, because it contains a co-ordinate clause, uni-
ted by a co-ordinate connective. A comma is inserted at the end of the-
first clause, it being the place of constructive contact between the members,
according to Rule 11th. (See Punctuation.)
Day uttereth speech, is a member of the trunk order, plenary notation,
imperfect integrity, and of the* affirmative kind, because it expiess^s the
highest degree of verbal force. Unto day is a member of the branch order,,
plenary notation, perfect integrity, first rank, juxta position, and reads
wkh ihe trunk for its super ; day uttereth speech unto day. A7ul night
»howeth Icnoteledge, is a member of the branch order, plenary notation,
imperfect integrity, first rank, jtixta position, and reads with the trunk foiv
its super; day uttereth speech, and niglit showeth knowledge. UntonightA
is a member uf the branch order, plenary notation, perfect integrity, second
rank,, juxta position, and reads with a branch of the first rank for its super ;,
And night showeth knowledge unto night. The true .sense reading. Day
uttsrath speech unto day, and night showeth knowledge unto night.
Exercises.
1 1 ^ ^
[Dagon' fell]'(upon his face) (before the ark) fof God).*[There was a
1 2 1
marriage]; (in Cana) (of Galilee). [There the fJower (of the mountain)-,
1 2 . 1
growsT, (and shakes its white head) (in the breeze). [The beams (of the
1 2
sun) rest]) (on the grave) (where her beauty sleeps)i [The man (who in-
1 2
structed me) (in grammar), labors 'faithfully]. [The President resides] (i»
1 2 1
the city) (lof Richmond.) [Flowers bloom]; (in the spiing,) (and fruit
1 '2 1
trees bear fruit) (in the summer). [The sun shines] (upon all men) who-
2 3 4 5
will receive feia rays) (which he sends) (from the h'cavens) (which are),
6
(above us).
CONSTRtTCTIVE GRAMMAR,
43
Mo'del 2d. I Alexander, king (cf Macedon), conquered Darius] ^(w^o was
1 2
the last king) (of the Persian dynasty.) ^ . * .
This is a complex sentence, because, &c. (See the analysis of the above
sentence). Alexander ling conquered Darius, #s a member of the trunk
•order, plenary notation, imperfect integrity, and of the affirmative kind,
because, &c. (See Model 1st).
Kem. 1.— The case in apposition must always be construed in the same member
■with the word which it identifies.
Exercises.
1 2
[Cornelius, the Roman centurion, sent] (for Peter the apostle), (who was
living) (with Simon the tanner.) (In the days) (of Joram^ king) (of
Israel), [flourished Elisha 'the prophet] [General Washington, the dis-
'tinguished leader (of the armies) (of the united colonies), was a man] (of
1 12
great prudence). [Elijah the prophet lived] (in the days) (of Ahab, king)
3 ^
(of Israel.) [John, the student, has returned] (from college). Bonaparte,
the Emperor (of the French), lost the battle] (of Waterloo). [Catherine,
queen (of Russia), built an ice palace]; (but, (when summer returned), it
2 2 3
dissolved) (into water), (and disappeared) (like the morning cloud). [Herod,
1 1
king (of Judea), sought to destroy the babe] (of Bethlehem).
Rem. 1.— As the infinitive mode can not give a new member, it must be cociBtrued
dn the same member with the word on which it depends.
Model 3i. (The rain having ceased), £the dark clouds rolled away], (and
1
;a calm ensued.)
The darh clouds rolled away, is a member of the trunk order, &c. (See
Model 1st.) The rain having ceased, is a member of the branch order,
plenary notation, perfect integrity, first rank, and reads with the trunk for
its super ; the dark clouds rolled away, the rain having ceased. And a
calm ensued, is a member of the branch order, &4.
Rem. 1.— Ai the case. dftsoZute with the participle depending upon it, is nearly
equivalent to a subordinate clause, it is regarded as a member of the branch order
in construction ; as, " The dark clouds rolled away whtn the rain had ccasnd."
Rem. 2.— As the case independent and interjections are not elements of a sen-
tence, they can have no constructive relafton to ntber elements; hence they are
called indtpendcnt members. If the case independent is modified by an adjunct,
both must be included as one member ; as, "John of Richmond, come forth." John
of Richmond, is an indaiiendent member ; as it has no constructive relation to the
rest of the sentence.
Exercises.
1 2 ^'^^•
(I being]r(in great haste), [he consented to finish the work.] (Charles),
1 1 *
{you, (by yoifr diligence), have made easy work] (of the task given) ( , you)
(by your preceptor.)
44 ANALTTICAL, ILLUfTRATIVE AND
Rem. 1. — A comma is used in implenary members, in the place of the noeton
word or words ; as, in the member you in the abovs, it shows that the preposition to
is understood — to you.
ind. 1
(Alas! [the joys (that, fortune brings),
Are trifling], (and decay.)
1 - 19
The war being ended), [peace was hailed] (with raptures) (of delight.)
ind.
(Young ladies), [you must study your lessons more diligently], (if you
11 1
wish to improve.) (Herod being dead), [Joseph returned] (with the y«ung
12 1 2
child) (to the land) (of Judea.) (The day having been spent) (in prepara-
1
tion), [the soldiers returned] (to their camps.]
1
Model UTi. " [What book have you ]? („ A poem)."
What hoolc have you, is a member of the trunk order, plenary notation,
perfect integrity, and of theinterrog;itive kind, because it contains a ques-
tion. I have apoem, is a member of the branch order, implenary notation,
perfect integrity, first rank, juxta position, and reads with the trunk for its
super. " What book have you ? / have a poem."
Exercises.
1
[Is there no balm] (in Gilead ?) [Who is this uncircumcised Philistine]
1 s
(that he should defy the armies) of (the living God ?) [Shall not the judge
1 12
(of all the earth) do right ?] [Who walked] (with you) (to the church) ?
1 12
(Eliza.) [Why is not the health (of the daughter) (of my people recovered ?]
[What can we do to remedy the evil ?] ( „ Nothing.) [Where have those
1 2
young ladies gon« ?] (,,) (To college.) [Canst thou expect, (thou be-
ind. 1
trayer of innocence), to escape the hand] (of vengeance ?)
[Will martial flames forever fire thy mind,]
1 2
(And Wilt thou never be (to heaven) resigned ?)
[Who can resolve the doubt]
(That tears my anxious breast?)
1 2
(Shall I be (with the damned) cast out,)
3 3
(Or , , , numbered) (with the blest ?) ^
1 ' 1 •
Model 5th. " [What, ( , I do) thou knowest not now] ; (but thou shalt
know hereafter)." Thou knowest not now what thing, is a meipber of the
trunk order, implenary notation, imperfect integrity, and of the affirmative
kind. Which I do, is a member of 4he brano'i order, impl-i-nary notation,
perfect integrity, etc., — Thou knowest not now what thing which I do.
But thou shalt krww her-eafter, is a member of the branch order, etc.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 45
The true sense reading is, Thou knowest not now what thing which I
do ; but thou shalt know hereafter.
Rem. I. — The expression it is or they are in puch constructions, would improve
the euphony of the sentence ; as, " Tht>u Icnowest not now what thing it is iphich
I do," etc. ; hut. as it lends no aid in parsing, it may bo omitted in construction.
Rem. 2. — JVhat, in such con.strnolicins, may be parsed as a spocifying adjective,
belonging to thing or things understood, or as a substitute for tohat tKing or things,
as the sense of the construction demands.
Rem. .3. — Mr. Butler, an eminent grammarian, considers what, in such construc-
tions as the above, a relative pronoun, referring to thitiji u.derstood for its antece»
dent, thus — " Thou knowest not now the thing what I do," etc. This, we think, is
decidedly better than the common way of disposing of it by calling it a compound
relative pronoun.
Rem. •!. — As whatever and whichever have a similar construction to what, they
need no separate model.
Exercises.
1 2
[I know what,] ( , he .said) (to me.) [The monks finished what,] ( , the
1 - 1
Goths had begun.) [Eliza may take whichever pattern] ( , pleases her best.)
12 1
[Whatever, ( , is true) (in science), is useful] (in the arts.) [I have heard
12 3
what,] ( , was alleged) (on both sides) (of the question.) [Eat, what] ( is
12 t. 1
set) (before you.) [We should carefully cultivate whatever,] ( , is lovely.)
[Whatever, ( , is,) , is right] [Thou knowest not what,] (, a day may
bring forth.) [What, (, I forfeit) (for myself ), is a trifle] ; (but that my
1 2
indiscretions should reach my posterity, wounds me) (to the heart.)
Rem 1. — That mij indiscretions should reach tiiy posterity, is the subject of the
verb wounds, acco.-ding to rule.
1 2
Model Gth. '" (Whoever will l^e a friend) (of the world), [ , is the enemy]
(of God )
He /* the enemy is a member of the trunk order, implenary notation,
perfect integrity', and of the aflSrmative kind, etc.
Bem 1. — As the antrcelent, in similar cnnstruotioni:, is very indefinite, conse-
quently easily supplied, it is genenil'y ellipticAl, »nd is gener.-tlly thesul<ject <f the
leading clauF(> or trunk meraoor. The person ^it any person, or pimply he, is gene-
rally the antpeeJent in fuch cdn.otniotii.iig.
Kem. 2. — Whoso and whosoever are nearly obsolete; whoever being nend in their
stead. , **
Rem. .3. — Whosoever, whoever, otc, are generally parsed as compound rela.tive
pronouns: this, however, is unnecessary; the antfcedcut being supplied, they may
be parsed simply as relative pronouns.
E.TERCisrs.
1 1
(Whoever takes Uic oath) [ , is "bound] (by the law.) (Whoever lives to
see this republic forsake her morn] and literary in'-titution«) [ , will behold
1
her lil.'.'rtle.-- prosti:*'.. •] ] OV!u.evi-r i.jJ.Idiallv violates any lau » (of his
2 , * 1
physical nature) [ , may expect to suffer its penalties.] (Whosoever will),
46 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVfi AND
1
[let , him, take the water (of life), freely.] (Whoever seeks the happiness)
(of others), [ , will generally find happiness] (for himself.) (Whoever
1 2
studies the works (of nature) attentively), [ , will be convinced] (of their
divine origin.)
1 1 — '
Model 7th. " [Qo ye] (into all the world), (and preach , my gospel) (unto
every cretture.)"
Oo ye is a member of the trunk order, plenary notation, perfect integrity,
and of the imperative kind, because it contains a command. The other
members are construed as in models already given,
Rhjc. 1. — As petitionary sentences direct have the same construction as the impe-
ralirt, one model will be sufficient for both.
Exercises.
1 . 9 ^ 3
(Go,] (»nd sin, no more), (lest a worse thing, come) (unto thee.) [Give,
1 1
^ , us) ( , this dav) our daily bread.] [Obey , them] (that have the rule)
9 ind. 1
(over you.) (Boys), (^key, ray precepts], [unless you wish to injure your-
• 1 1 2
selvM.) [Seek, the Lord], (and live.) (Into any city) (of the Gentiles),
[tnter ye not.] [Escape ,] (for your life.) [Remember now thy Creator] (in
the days) (of thy youth), (while the evil days come not.)
[Remember , thy Creator now] ;
2 1
(For him), (thy powers employ) ;
2 3 '
(Make ( , him) thy fear, thy love, thy hope.
Thy confidence, and joy.)
Rbk. 1. — The pconoun him, being the material of which the nouns /ear, love,
hope, etc-i are made, is governed by of understood. (See Peculiar Congtructions.)
Some gramnnarians, however, consider Awra in the objective, governed by make, and
the foUoiring «ouns in the objective case after to he understood.
Rbh. 2. — When conjunctions connect words only, they do not give new members.
1 4
Model Bth. [Let us, make man] (in our own image.)
Let us mal-e man, though it has the form of a direct petition, yet no per-
son seems to be directly addressed ; hence, Dr. Webster, and several other
eminent philologists, say that the verb let, in such constructions, is in the
imperative mode without a nominative specified ; hence, in such construc-
tions, no nominative need be supplied ; and the verb may be thus parsed:
Let is an irregular transitive verb, in the imperative mode without a nomi-
native specified ; — if any, however, should prefer supplying a nominative,
there are authorities to sustain him.
Rem. I. — It should be observed, however, that, though this idiom is very exten-
Biv* and of great convenience, yet, in some sentences, it has an imperative force;
M, " Let no one leave of it till morning."
constructive grammar. 47
Exercises.
1
[Let the wicked, forsake his way], (and, the unrighteous man ,, his
1 Bi. po8. ' 2 1
thoughts) ; (and let them return) (unto our God) ; (for he will abundantly
1 1
pardon.) [Let mc , die the death] (of the righteous), (and let my last end
3 1
be) (like his.) [Let him (that stole), steal no more.] [Let highborn
seraphs tune the lyre.]
[Let every mortal ear attend,]
(And every heart rejoice:)
1 S
(The trumpet (of the gospel) sounds)
a
(With an inviting voice.)
1
[The death (of the rigjjteous) let me die,]
9 1
(Like his) , (my last end be) ; '
1 a
(Then, (far beyond this changing sky,)
Let me his glory see.)
Rkm. 1. — An adverb sometimes modifies a phrase. In such cases the adverb must
be incUided in the member which it modifies ; for every word must be dispoied of
in it; own member. Far, in the above example, modifies the phrase beyond ihit
changing sky ; henco it is included in it.
Model 9th. [How cold and feeble is my love] !
1
(How negligent my fear) I
2 3 4
(How low fny hopes) (of joys) ( , , abovg) !
8
(How few affections, there) !
How cold and feeble is my love, is a member of the trunk order, plenary
notation, perfect integrity, and of the exclamativekind, because it expreasea
an emotion.
Exercises.
[How tedious and tasteless the hours]
(When Jesus no longer I see) !
1
(Sweet prospects, sweet birds, and sweet flowers,
s
Have all lost their sweetness) (to me) 1
[IIow beauteous are their feet,]
1 2
(Who stand) (on Zion's hill I)
2 3
(Who bring salvation) (on their tongues,)
3-1
(And words (of peace) reveal) I
48 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
1 2
[How fast we are travelling] ('to the grave, the home) (of the dead !)
2 3
^e^ellOth.' [^fi ye, therefore, ready] 5 (/or, (in «,uch ari^hour) (a.s , , . >
"■ ■ 4 u - 1 • U - - ■■ '^V'-' ' S
(ye think not), the Son (of man) conieth.)
Be ye, there/ore, ready, is a member of the trunk order, plenary notation,
perfect integrity, and of the imperative kind, because it contains a com-
mand.
The SontometJt, is a member of the branch order, plenary notation, im-
perfect integrity, first rank, juxta position, and reads with the trunk for its
supei- — Be ye, therefore, ready : for the Son cometh.
Of man, is a member of the branch order, plenary notation, perfect in-
tegrity, second rank, and juxta position, and reads with the branch of the
first rank — For the Son of man cometh.
In such an hour, is a member of the branch order, etc., and second rank,
juxta position, and reads with the first rank for its super — For the Son
cometh in such an hour.
As that hour is, is a member of the branch order, implenary notation,
perfect integrity, third rank, and reads with a branch of the second rank for
its super — In snch an hour as that h0ur is.
Which ye think not^ is a member of the branch order, implenarj-^ notation,
perfect integrity, fourth rank, juxta position, and reads with a branch of
the third rank for its super — As that hour is which ye thinh not.
Rem. 1. — As, in constructions like the above, is generally regarded bj authors as
a relative pronoun. To this, however, fooae of our ablest critics object^ contending
that it i? a conjunction. That the latser view is correct will appear obvious by ren-
derin^j the senteiice plenar;, , in which cafe as is obviously a conjunction ; but the
former view is, however, wi-11 supported. The intelligent student may choose for
himself.
Exercises.
12 1
[I like such persons] (as , , ) ( , have a refined taste.) [Let , such (as , , )
2 11
( , presume to advise others) lo(fk well] (to themselves.) [Let such (as, , )
2 11
( , have no fault), condemn those ,] (who have). [We* are fond] (of the
2 '3 4 5
company) (of such persons) (as , , ) ( , have views similar) (to our own.)
12 1
[Such things (as , , ) ( , I have) , give 1] (unto you.) [You must take such , ]
12 12
(as , , ) ( , you can get.) [Let such (as, , ) ( , are faint-hearted), return]
1 12
( , home.) [Thou shalt take able bodied men such] (as , , ) ( , can do the
work) (of the tabernacle.)
Rem. 1. — There are but few ^©rds in the English language more perplexing than
the word as. The ofSce which it performs in a sentence, irrespective of its form,
can only lead to a correct understanding of its construction. >\ben it follows such
in construction, it is regarded by some, as has already been noticed, aj a relative
pronoun ; but, perhaps, it is more properly a conjunction. It is a conjunction when
it joins on a member expressing equality; and it is a preposition when used in the
sense of like, for and in the character of. It is frequently an adverb, as will be per-
ceived by its modifying adjective and adverbial elements. Its principal uses will
be illustrated in the following exercists.
1 1 2
Model llth. [Be ye wise] (as serpents , , ), (and , , harmless) (as doves , , ).
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 49
Be ye wise., is a member of the trunk order, etc.
As serpents are v'!i<e. is a luembt r ol' ihe branch order, implenary nota-
tion, perfect inlegriiv, firsl rank, juxtn position, and reads with the trunk
for its super — Be ye itm^as serpents ure wise:
And he ye harm/exs, is 'i inemhei' of the branch order, implenary nota-
tion, etc. — BeJje icise, and be ye harmless.
As doves are harmless., is .a member of the branch order, implenary no-
tation, etc. — And b" ye harmless as doves are harmless. True sense read-
ing— Be ye wise as serpents are wise, and be ye harmless as doves are
harmless.
Be ye wise — how wise ? As serpents are wise ; then as serpents arewise,
is an adverbial elemcnt'of the third cbiss, and limits the predicate "be wise
by pointing outran equality o{(2»aUty.
Reh. I. — As the understood adjectives tdse and harmtcss are not needed in pars-
ing, their actual expression in construction, is not absolutely^necessary. [Eliaa is
as handsome] (as her sister , , .) The first as in this sentence, is an adverb, and
njodifies itandsome. In other respects, the construction is precisely like thejmodel.
Exercises.
1 2 1
[As long (as I am) (in the world), I am the light] (of the world.) (As
1 1
you have opportunity), [do good] (to all men.) [James [is as "tall] (as
his brother, ,) ; (but he is not so handsome.)
ind.
(Children of the heavenly king,)
1
(As we journey), [let us sing.]
Rem. 1. — As, in the last «xample, is used in the sense of while— a, sense in which
it is frequently used.
1
[Long (as they live), should Christians pray ;]
1 8 .
(They learn to pray) (when first they"live.)
1
[His word is as good] (as his bond , , .)
Rem. 2.— Nearly tUied to this'constructiou, is that, in which, an adverb is con,-
• 1
strued between two osos ; as, [The United States can now as justly (as Groat Britain,)
boagt] (of their literary institutions.) It is conceded that Great Britain can justly
bo.ist, and it is aflirme<l that the United States can boast as justly: then it would
soom that the first as is used to modify justly by pointing out how _;M,'?//y, smd justly
inodilics £ari boast— at the same time it appears to have some modifying influence
upon tlie ."^ecnnd as; the sec- ud as pcrfurms the office of a connective, and is a con-
junction or a conjunctive adverb. It cuust be confessed, however, that these words
as justly as, as well us, etc., in their modifying influeucc, like the overlappings of
the colors of the rainbow, so minglo, and run into each other, that it is not a very
easy task to analyz • them, and point ouc the precise shade of meaning afi°ected by
each separately ; heneo as welljoa, as justly'aSj etc., are generally called conjunc-
tions by Grammarians.
Mr. Bailey analyzes as weU'as, as follows."!" Shejcan write as well as her sister."
The first as, he says, i.s an adverb, and modifies loeli ; as well modifies the second as,
and the second as is a connective adverb, and modifies' caw write understood.
1
[She dances as gracefully] (as a queen , , .) (James can speak] (as welj
50 ANALTTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AXD
1
as Henry , , .) The latter sentence, considering a4 well <ia a conjunction,
should be construed as shown above.
Rem. 3. — Af^ well as Henry can speak, as an element of the sentonce, is adverbial,
and modifias tho predioato can speak by pointing out hoicf well.
REsr. 4. — When as is construed before the prepositions /or and to, it belongs to ai2
implenary member — such as it is, it relates, etc., as exhibited in the fallowing:
1 3
Model l^th. (As, ,) (for man), [his days are] (as grass.)
His (Jays are, is a member of the trnnk order, etc. As it is or rather »9
it is determined, is a member of the branch order, implenary notation, per-
fect integrity, first rank, disjuxta position, and reads with the trunk for its
super — "His days are as it is determined." For man, is a member of the
branch order, plenary notation, etc., and reads with the branch of the first
rank for its super — " At it is determined for man." As ffrast, is a member
of the branch order, plenary notation, etc., aftd reads with the trunk for
its super — " His days are as grass." ''.His days are as grass as it is deter-
mined for man."
"(As, , ) (to-the tarjff), [I have no particular objection], (but I dislike
the manner) (of raising it,)" As to the tariff, •», e., as it relate* to tht
tariff, etc.
Exercises.
1 2 1
(If it seem evil (unto you) to serve the Lord), [choose you,] (this day)
1 2 3 1
(whom ye will serve) ; (but, (asf ,) (for me and my house), we will serve
the Lord.)
Kem. l.—WAom refers to God or gods 'unu^rftood in tho trunk member for its
antecedent.
1 2 1
(As , ,) (to our ancestors), [it may be observed] (that their educational
2 12
advantages were much inferior) (to ours.) (As,,) (to me), [I know not
12 3
what course to take.] (As , , ) (to the correctness) (of his statement), [I can
1
not vouch] ; (yet I believe him to be an honest man.)
1 1
'Model \2>tJi. " [Gen. Taylor was more eminent] (as a soldier), (than) (as
2
a statesman.)"
Gen Taylor was more eminent, is a member of the trunk order, etc. As
a soldier, is a member of the branch order, etc. Than he teas eminent, is a
member of the branch order, implenary notation, etc. Asa statesman, is a
member of the branch order, etc. "Gen. Taylor was more eminent as a
soldier, than he was eminent as a statesman."
Rem. 1 — As, in this sentence, is equivalent to in the character oj ; but as the at-
tentive student can rr adil}' discriminate Avhen as is used in^the sense just giren,
when in the sense oi jor, and when in the sense of lilit, no other models need be
given for tht construction of as used as a preposition.
Exercises.
1
[He introduced himself] (as a joijrneyman.) [I employed him] (as a
1 1 Bi. po8.
physician), (though he proved to be a miserable quack.) [The tutrea*
CONBTUUCTIVB GRAMMAR. 5l
1 ' 1
(who instructs those young ladies), is eminent] (as a scholar.) [We, thcre-
1 2
fore, resolve to organize] (under the following articles) (as a constitution.)
1 1 2
(As a gentleman,) [I respect him], (but I do not admire him) (as a teacher.)
1 1 2
[He thought] (as a sage), (though he felt) (as a man.) [Man's days are] (as
1 IBi. po. 8 3
grass), (and (as the flowers) (of {he field), he fadeth away.) [I treated him]
(as my friend.)
1 3
Model 14cth. " [Jesus stooped down], (and, (with his finger."?,) wrote) (on
3 2 3
the ground\ (as,) (though he heard them not,)'"
Rbm. 1. — yl.». in thi.s inoilcl. givos an iraplon.ary raorabor, and should bo rendered
as follows : " He. icrolr <w he would have donf, though he beard theoa not."
Rem. 2. — As if .and than if have tho same construotion — as alvravs belonging to
an implonary membor.
E.XERCISE3.
I 2
[I treated him] (as,,) (if he were my son.) [A great mass (of rocks
1 2
thrown together) (with wildness and confusion), strikes the mind] (with
1 1 Bi. po«. 2 3
TOore grandeur), (than , , ,) (if they had been adjusted) (to one another)
3 1
(with the most accurate symmetry.) [Some men live] (as,,), (if they never
3 13 3
expected to die.) [He talks] (as , , ,) (though he were Lord)^ (of cre-
ation.)
12 1 2
Model loth [AlS it was] (in the days) (of Noe), («o shall it bo also) (in the
3 4
days) (of the Son) (of man.)
IlF.jf. \.—As so, so as, both and, though ijft^ not only but, neither nor, either or
and sonie others of similar import, are called correlative or coiTfsponrting conjunc-
tions, ns tbey form but one c<mnecti'^n, and have a reciprocal rsliition to euch other.
Rem. 2. -It should be observed that the two parts of the correlative conjunction
beloDf; to different numbers of the sentence, ami that several of them perform tho
office of adverbs in their respective members; this is strictly true with respect, to
to as, as so, and as (ts. «
Exercises.
1 1
[Ab the heart panteth] (after the cooling water brook) ; (so panteth my
2 ind.
soul) (after thee), (O Lord !)
{.Though it may make vou dance and sing]
I 2 "
iYet, (like an adder,) it will sting.)
1 12
[Wc assisted him hoth] (for his own sake), (and , , , ) (for the sake) (of his
3 1
fomily). [General Washington was not only a man] (of undaunted cour-
62 ANALYTICAL ILLUSTRATIVE AKD
1 2
age), (but he was also a man) (of great prudence and foresight.) [Ahab,
12 3
who flourished) (in the days) (of Elij<ah the prophet), was neither wise nor
I 1
pious], (but he was wicked and cruel.) (When the first division completes
2 3 4
(a proposition so) (as , , , to have no dependence) (on what , ), (follows), (but
3 ,4
the following clause has a dependence) (on the preceding), [the two parts are
1
separated] (by a semicolon.)
Bem. 1. — Some grammarians suppose that the infinitive, in such constructions as
the last pxample, depends on as; but by supplying the understood words, it will be
perceived that it depends on some other word ; as, " As it completes it to have no
dependence."
Eeh. 2. — That so performs the office of an .adverb in its own member is clear from
its being equivalent to a phrase which is obviously adverbial; as, " When the first
division completes a proposition in such a manner as it completes it to have no de-
pendence," etc.
Model lUh. [More volunteers offered their services] (than , , ) ( , were
2
needed.)
More volunteers offered their services, is a member of the trunk order,
etc. Than they were, is a member of the branch order, implenary notation,
perfect integrity, juxta position, and reads with the trunk for its super —
More volunteers offered their services than they were. Who were needed, is
a'member of the branch order, implenary notation, perfect integrity, second
rank, juxta position, and reads with the branch of the tirst rank for its su-
per— Than they were who were needed. More volunteers offered their ser-
vices, than they were who were needed.
Kem. 1. — In constructions like the above, some grammarians eunaiderf/tfln a rela-
tive pronoun. (See Bailey's Grammar). The con.-iructioc of than, as used above
is nearly the same as that of as when it follows s'<ch.
Rem. 2.— When than is used in the seose of besides or except, it is a preposition;
as, " Thou shah have no other God than me"
Rem. 3.— In virtue of poetic license, whom in the objective, is construed after
than, instead of he in the nominative ; a.s " Than whom, Satan except, none higher
sat." This sentence rendered plenary, und construed according t^ the laws of con-
struction, would read thus, " None sat higher than he sat, Satan exceplfd." As the
use of whom instead of he in such eonstruetions, is ungrammatical, it should not bd
imitated in prose composition.
•
Exercises.
1 1- 2
[More applied] (for offices) (than , , ) ( , were worthy.) [He had more
1 2 •>
legal learning] (than any attorney,) (who appeared) (at the bar.) (Whoso-
ever loveth father or mother more) , (than , , me), [ , is not worthy] (of me).
3
[It is more blessed to give], (than , , to receive). [I have known him]
1 2
[ , more,) (than forty years.)— I have known him /or more years than forty
years are. ■
Model 17 th. [What , , , , ] (though destruction sweep these lovely plains?)
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 53
What reason have we to defipair, is a member of the trunk order, iin ple-
nary notation, perfect integrity, and of the interrogative kind, etc. Though
destruction should sicecp these lorely p7ains\ is a member of the branch
order, etc., and reads with the trunk for its sup?r — What reason have we to
despair, though destruction should sweep these lovely plains.
Rem. 1. — When what is followed by though, it invariaUl^y belongs to an implenary
member which should be rendered plcnnry in construction by supplying CKCh wordg
as the sense demands ; for instance, " What docs it viatler ?" " What have you to
fear ?" " What reason have v>e to despair ?"
Exercises.
1
[What , , , ] (though the swelling surge thou see ?)
1
(■What , , , ] (though the foot, ordained the dust to tread,
Should aspire to be the head ?)
1 2
[What , , , ] though ( , in solemn silence,) all
2
Move) (round this dark terrestrial ball ?)
CHAPTER XII.
GENERAL RE j« ARK 8-
Rem. — If the element which the preposiHon sivesis adverbial, its canteoedont term
must bo the predicate or some other verbial element ; but, if the elementis adjectiTc.
its antecedent term must be n substantive element, ; ns, "Joshua led the chi^ren of
Israel into the promised Innd." Of Israel is an adjective element; hence its antece-
dent term children is a substantive eloment; but, as i/ito the promised land is an ad-
verbial eleu.ent, its antecedent term led is avfrbal elcini>nt.
Rkh. 2. — The trunk member must be the leading clause of a sentence, though it
Is sometimes wholly implenary, .and not anfr quontly but a sinfjis word is expressed,
yet, by studying the sentence attentively, its trunk character will bo obvious; as,
1 3
0 [ , , ] (for a closer walk) (with God !)
[ , , Happy], (if (with my latest breath),
1 may but gasp bis name !)
In the former sentence, the trunk member is wholly im]ilcnary, viz., / wish.
(See Peculiar Constructions.)' In the hitter sentonoe only one word is expressed
viz., happy (rendered plenary). I shall be happy.
Rem. .'?. — When a relative pmnoun is governed by a preposition, the preposition
is generally construed before it; iu such cases, the sub is almost invariably con-
strued before its super ; as,
2 1
" [Let him (to whom)- (wo now belong),
His sovereign right assert.]"
REsr. 4. — When that is a substitute for the following clause, and the object of tho
preceding verb, either member may be the trunk ; but the one which follows it i3
1
generally preferred ; as," (I have henrd that) [tho Grcoks defeated the Turk.^.]"*
" Tho Greeks defeated the Turks, I h?.vo heard that." For the construction of tknt,
see Peculiar Constructions.
* When the latter clausoi^ the object of tho verb in tin- prvcediii!? one, it would ho bet-
ter, perhapu, to inchide both in one member.
64 AKALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
CHAPTER XIII.
• PROMISCUOUS lEXEECISBS.
LESSON I.
Moses smote the rock with his rod. Jesus went unto the Mount of
Olives. Joshua led the children of Israel, over Jordan, into the land of
Canaan. Lot fled with his two daughters, from Sodom, to the mountains.
Pale Cynthia declining clips the horizon. I love flagrant flowers. She
loves to walk in the garden among sweet flowers. The slumbering seas
calmed the grave, old hermit's mind. A beam of tranquility often plays
around the heart of the truly pious man. Mary studies her lessons atten-
tively, and she learns very fast. Martha was troubled about many things.
Mary hath chosen that good part which shall not be taken away from her.
Those young ladies wrote a beautiful letter, but they did not dispatch it.
A certain man planted a vineyard, and set a hedge about it, and digged a
place for the wine vat. Jacob worshipped the Lord, leaning on his stafi".
The law can make no man perfect. The glory of the Lord came down upon
the tabernacle. The moon arose in clouded majesty, and threw her silver
mantle over the slumbering waters.
LESSEN IL
Jane wrote that letter with a pen by moonlight. Law, in its most limited
sense, is a, rule of human action. The All-wise Creator bestowed the power
of speech upon man for the best of purposes. A winding stream murmured
through the spicy groves. The way of the transgressor is hard. The hail
which fell last week, badly injured the standing crops. Socrates was the
most learned philosopher of ancient Greece. Homer is styled the prince of
poets, ^he law of nations is that collection of principles, which regulates
the intercourse among national communities. Whosoever will save his life,
shall lose it. The law of the Lord is perfect, converting the soul. Sow to
yourselves in righteousness; reap in mercy; break up your fallow ground;
for it is time to seek the Lord till he come and rain righteousness upon you.
Fair Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Modesty always
appears graceful in youth : it doubles the lustre of every virtue which it
seems to hide. True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and pro-
motes the happiness of all around him. On the wings of the wind, he rode,
and the clouds were his chariot. The work might have been completed
sooner, but it could not have been done better. Surely goodness and
mercy will follow me all the days of my life ; and*I shall dwellin the house
of the Lord forever.
Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour,
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower ;
The world was sad, the garden was a wild ;
And man, the hermit, sighed till woman smiled.
LESSON III.
With an insatiable thirst for knowledge, I trifled away the years of im«
provemtnt. He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day,
and follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through
the labyrinth of the most busy life. Alas ! within the last quarter of a
century, our Eepublic has been called to mourn the destructicn of many of
her best citizens upon that fatal field of honor. An aged beggar, who,
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 65
with trembling knees, stood at the gate of a portico, from which he had
been thrust by the insolent domestic, who ^rnarded it, struck the prisoner's
attention. A certain Emperor of China, on his accession to the throne of
his ancestors, commanded a general release of all those who had been im-
prigoned for debt. The value of the Christian faith may be estimated by
the consolations which it affords. The eyes of a fool are in the ends of tho
earth. What I shall do I l<now not; for clouds and darkness veil the fu-
ture. Yea, thougli I walk through the valley of shadow of death, I will
fear no evil ; for thou art with mo. "Whatever purifies the heart, also forti-
fies it. In those days, came John the Baptist, preaching in tho wilderness
of Judea.
The wind was high — the window shakca ;
With sudden start, the miser wakes !
Along the silent room he stalks ;
Looks back, and trembles as he walks.
* • LESSON IV.
The night, which was excessively dark, had already closed upon u«, and
the rain fell in torrents. AVith features so plain that not even self-love
could persuade her she was handsome, yet she was exceedingly anxious to
be thought beautiful. An old clock, which, for fifty years, had stood in a
farmer's kitchen, without giving to its owner any cause of complaint, on
one summer's mornins before the family was stirring, suddenly stopped.
A talkative fellow applying to Isocratcs for instruction in oratory, the ora-
tor asked him double price, — "Because," said he, " I must teach him how
to.speak, and when to hold his tongue." Sir Walter Raleigh took the axe,
with which he was to be executed, in his hand, and, kissing the blade, he
passed his finger along the edge, remarking to the sheriff — " 'Tis a sharp
medicine, but a sound cure for all diseases." Had he loved Spain more,
and England less, he would never have died on the scaffold. Lady Jant
Grey fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the Duke of Northumberland.
There no waves of trouble roll,
Calmly rests the weary soul,
Drinks from streams that never dry,
Gazes on a cloudless sky.
There the sun forever shines,
And the moon no more declines;
Clouds and darkness flee away
From that bright, eternal day.
LESSON V.
•
Why seek ye the living among the dead ? Is there not a cause? Who
will fight with this uncircumciscd I'iiilistine? Why should it be thought
a thing incredible with you, that God should raise the dead ? Are ye an-
gry with me; because I have made a man every whit whole? Dost thou
not behold, Malvina, a rock with its lioad of heath ? Paul, the great apos-
tle of the Gentiles, suflercd martyrdom at Rome. The voice of Henry
Clay, the great American orator, is now silent in the grave. Confucius,
the great Chinese philosoj)her, was imincntly good as well as wis(^ Tho
voice of Demosthenes, the great Atiienian orator, fell with greater force
upon the hearts of the Athenians, than the thunder of the advancing le-
56 ANALYTICAL, ILLUBTRATIVE AND
gions of Philip. Daniel Webster, the great American statesman, was 3
strong believer in the principles of Christianity. John 0. Calhoun, the
great defender ot Southern Rights, died in the city of Washington. Bona-
parte, being banished, peace was restored to Europe. The General being
slain, the army was routed. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multi-
tude being in that place. Law, religion, and humanity being disregarded,
the greatest terror reigned throughout the realm of France.
When shall I reach that happy place,
And be forever blest ?
When shall I see uiy !^ather's face,
And in his bosom rest ?
Depths of mercy! can there be,
. Mercy still reserved for me?
Can my Clod his wrath forbear ?
Me, the chief of sinners spare ?
Must I be carried to the skies
On flowery beds of ease.
While others fought to win the prize
And sailed through bloody seaa ?
LESSON VI.
Ceme, peace of mind, delightful guest ! and dwell with- me,
Loi Newton, priest of Nature, shines afar.
Scans the wide world, and numbers every star.
Three aged pines bend from its face ; green is the plain at its feet, there
the flower of the mountain grows, and shakes its white head in the breeze.
Whosoever, therefore, sliall confess me before men, him will I confess, also,
before my Father which is in heaven. He is more eminent as a statesman
tha nas an orator. If ye believe not that I am he, ye shall die in your sins,
I treated him as, if he were my son. What, though the earth be moved,
and the mountains shake V Lo>ve not the world, nor the things which are
in the world. She is as fair as her sister, but she is not so intelligent.
Get thee behind me, Satan ; for thou savorest not the things that baof God
but the things that be of men.
Now came still evening on, and twi>Iight gray
Had, in her sober livery all things clad.
When, for eternal worlds, 1 steer.
When seas are calm, and skies are clear,.
The soul, for joy, then claps her wings,
And loud her lovely sonnet sings,
"Vain world, adieu!"
Hem. I. — The prcfceding exercises should be analyied, construed or syntbetiBetJ,
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 57
CHAPTER XIV.
IDEA, THOUGHT, AND n?OPOSTTION.
§ 1. An Idea is a mental picture.
The external object of an idea is called its archetype or pattern. An idea
tuay be said to be true when it agrees with its archetype in all its particu-
lars ; it may be said to be false when it disagrees with its archetype, and it
may be saii to be partially false, when it agrees in some, and disagrees in
other particulars.
Several ideas united in the mind form a thought. A thought expressed
or clothed in words, forms a sentence or Proposition. Ideas then arc the
elements of thought, and as words arc the signs of ideas, they are conse-
quently the elements of a proposition.
§ 2. A Proposition is a portion of discourse, in which a
predicate is affirmed or denied of a subject.
A Proposition, in a logical sense, consists of three parts — the Subject,
the Predicalc, and the Copula,
§ 3. The predicate is the name, denoting that which is af-
firmed Or denied.
§ 4. The Copula is the sign denoting that there is an affirma-
tion or denial, and thereby enabling the hearer or reader to
distinguish a proposition from any other kind of discourse.
§ 5, The subject is the name denoting the person or thing,
of which something is affirmed or denied.
§ G. Categorical propositions are of four kinds, namely. Uni-
versal Affirmatives; as. All B is C, Universal Negatives: as,
."NoBisC," Particular Affirmatives; as, "Some B is C,"
and Particular Negatives ; as, some B is not C,
§ 7. Propositions are divided according to their quality in
Affirmative and Negative,
An affirmative proposition is that in which the predicate is affirmed of
the subject; as, "Calhoun is dead."
A Negative proposition is that in which the Predicate is denied of tho
Eubjecl ; as, " Calhoun is not dead.
§8. Propositions a»c divided according to their quantity
into Universal and Particular.
A Proposition is vnivierml, when the subject is a general name embracinf
a whole species of class, and the predicate affirms concerning all or each
of the things denoted by the s jbjcct; thus, "All men are mortal," because
the predicate atDrms of all the individuals, denoted by the subject; and
•• Krrry man is mortal," is also a universal proposition, because what is
nflirmed of one individual, the mind, inetantancou.'-ly, if not instinctively
transfers to the whole. ^
68 ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND
A Proposition is particular, when the subject is limited by some limiting
word, which shows the predicate affirms concerning a^>ar^ of the whole;
as, "Some men are religious."
Resi. I. — ThoFe propositions which are called indefinite, are either Universal or
Particular according to the sense ; as, " Man is mortal."
Rem. 2. — Singular propositions are generally regarded a^ Universal; since the
■whole of the predicate is affirmed of the whole subject ; as, " Brutus was a RiOiaan."
TERMS OF A PROPOSITION.
§ 9. Every proposition has two terms, viz., the subject and
predicate. When any word can be a term of itself, it is said
to be Categorematic ; but, when any word is incapable of con-
stituting a term of itself, it is called Syncategorematic ; as, ad-
verbs, prepositions, etc.
Rem. 1. — A term is said to be distributed when it has a universal sign prefixed to
it, such as all, every, no, etc.
Kkm, 2. — The signs of universality and particularity, are sometimes understood
or omitted t
Rem. 3.— The Universal AflBrmative distributes the subject, the Universal Nega-
tive both the suhject and tha predicate; the Particular Negative distributes the
predicate, and the Particular Affirmative neither the subject nor the predicate.
CONVERSION OF PROPOSITIONS.
§ 10. A proposition is converted when the predicate is made
the subject, and the subject the predicate ; as, "No B is 0 ;
therefore, no C is B,"
A proposition can be converted simply when both terms are distributed,
or neither term, or wlaen both terms, in their meaning, are coextensive ;
as, "All men are rational animals ; therefore, all rational animals are men."
All negroes are human beings, but we cannot say all human beings are ne-
groes ; because the terra human beings is more extensive in its meaning
than the term negroes. In such cases, wq say we admit the proposition, but
deny its converse, that is, its apparent converse ; for the truth of the real
or logical converse, always follows from the truth of its exposita.
As the Universal Negative distributes both terms, and the Particular
AfQrmative neither, they can be converted simply ; as, " No B is C ; then
no C is B. Some B is C ; then some 0 is B."
The Universal Affirmative is converted by limitation, or, as it is generally
called, per uecidens; as, "All B is C ; then some C is B."
A proposition is said to be illatively converted when no term is distribu-
ted in the converse, which was undistributed in the exposita.
OPPOSITION OF PB,OPOSITIONS.
§ 11. Categorical propositions are opposed in four ways, viz.,
1, Contraries, 2, Subcontraries, -3, Subalterns, and 4, Contra-
dictories.
Constructive grammar. 59
When universal propositions disagree in quality, they are called Contra-
ries ; as, " All B is 0. -No B is C." When particulars disagreoin quality,
they arc called Subcontraries: as, "Some B i.s C. Some B is not C."
Propositions are called Subalterns when they disagree in quantity on\y \
OvS, '■'■All B is C, some B is C, and no B is C. I'iomc B is not C." When
propositions disacree hoik in quantity and quality, they are called Contra-
dictories ; as, All B is C. Some B is not C. No B is C. Some B is C."
Rem. 1. — A proposition and its contradictory can never both be true, nor both
false.
Rem. 2.— Those teachers who are not acquainted with Logic, can, if they choose,
pass over this and the following chapter.
CHAPTER Xy.
REASONING.
§ Reasoning is that art or process of the viind, hyivhich new
or unknoivn truths are deduced from propositions known and
evident, or admitted or supposed for the sake of arguments
There are' two kinds of reasoning — Deductive and Inductive.
Deductive is reasoning from the cause to the eff'ect, or from the whole to
tls parts.
/;if?Mcfipe is reasoning from the ejfect to the caw.s^, or from the parts to
the icliole; Thus, when the subject is given and the predicate required,
the reasoning is Deductive \ and when the predicate is given and the sub-
ject required, the process is called Inductive reasoning.
§ 2. Syllogistic reasoning is deductive.
A true Syllogism consists of three propositions, viz., the major, minor,
and conclusion, and three terms — and three only, viz., the major, minor,
and middle terms ; as, "AUBisC (the major); some A is B (minor);
therefore, some A is C (conclusion)."
Rem. 1. — The predicate of the conclusion is always the major term, and the euh-
jtct of the conclusion, is iho minor term ; hence, by subtracting those terms from
the terms of the premises, tie remainder will be the mi\tdh term, which, in the
foregoing syllogism is B. By inspection the learner will perceive that the middle
term is the subject of th* major proposition, and the predicate of the miivr propo-
sition. Hence, to prove the conclusion of an affirmative syllogism, we have the
following
Rule.
If any two terms nnrree with onp and the same middle term,
tbey must agree with each other. Kow I find by inspection
that the major term C agrees with the middle term B as the
predicate, and the^iinor term A agrees with the same middle
60 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
term B as its subject ; now, as these two terms agree with one
and the same middle term, they must agree Avith each other ;
therefore " Some A is C"
For proving a Negative conclusion we have the following
Rule.
If one of two terras agrees, and the other disagrees ^ith one
and the same third or middle, they must disagree with each
other.
No B is C ;
All A is B ;
Therefore no A is C.
By inspection, I find that the major term' 0, in this syllogism, disagrees
with the middle term B as its predicate ; and the minor term A agrees with
the same middle B as its subject. Now, as one of these terms agrees, and
the other disagrees with the same middle term B, they must disagree with
each other; therefore, "No A is C."
Rem. 1. — By inspecting ths construction of the two syllogisms already giTCP, the
learner will perceive that the predicate of the conclusion agrees with the predicate
of the major, the subject of the conclusion agrees with the subject of the minor,
and that the predicate of the minor agrees with the subject of the major. This is
invariably the case in all syllogisms of the first figure.
*: Proof of the Minob.
All good men are patriots ;
General Washington was good ;
Therefore General Washington was a patriot.
The truth of the major being granted, the minor is proved as follows: In
this syllogism the same thing is 2^'>'edicated of the subject of the minor,
which is assumed of the subject of the major, or, in other words, the predi-
cate of the minor agrees with the subject of the major ; then the subject
of the minor is a part of the whole class, included in the subject of the
major. Now whatever can be predicated of the whole (logically speaking
can be predicated of any of its parts; but 1 have proved ih2.i General
Washington WiQ m\noY, is a part oiihe tchole; therefore I can predicate
patriot of General Washmgton, because it is predicated of the whole class
of which he is a part.
Figures of Syllogissis.
There are four figures distinguished from each other by the position of
the middle term. In the first figure, which is by far the most perfect of
all, and to which all others may be reduced, the middle term is the suhjeci
of the major proposition, and the predicate of the minor ; as,
B\sC;
AisB;
Therefore A is C.
The middle term in the second figure, isthe 2yredicate of loth premises ; as,
C\sB-
AisB;
Therefore A is C. •
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.
61
In the third figure, the middle term is the subject of both premi-
ses ; as, «
7?isO;
^ is A ;
Therefore A is C.
The middle term is the predicate of the major and subject of the minor in
the fourth figure ; as,
C is J?;
J5 is A ;
Therefore A is C.
Rem. 1. — By close Inspection of the Syllogisms of the different figures given
above, the learner will readily perceive that the middle term can never bo used in
the conclusion; as it is that with which the other two are compared, and by whose
aid a correct conclusion can be drawn. Hence, it has been called by the older Lo-
gicians argument Kin.
Modes.
Each figure is subdivided into Modes according to what are called the
quantity and qunVity of the premises, that is, according as they are Uni-
versal or Particular, Affirmative or Negative.
The following are examples of all the legitimate modes, that is, all in
which the conclusion correctly follows from the premises. A is the minor
term, C the major, and B the middle.
FiKST Figure.
All B is C ;
All AisH;
Therefore
All A is C.
No C is n ;
All A isB;
Therefore
No A is C.
NoBisC;
All A isB;
Therefore
No A is C;
All B is C ;
Some A is B;
Therefore
Some A is C ;
Second Figure.
AllCisB;
No A is B;
Therefore
No A is C.
No C is B ;
Some A is B ;
Therefore
Some A is not C.
No B is C J
Some A is B i
Therefore
Some A is not C.
AllBisC;
Some A is not B;
Therefore
Some A is not C.
Third Figure.
All B is C ;
All Bis A;
Therefore
Some A is C.
NoBisC; (Some B is C;
All Bis A; All Bis A;
Therefore Therefore
Some AisnotC.ISome A isC.
All BisC:
SonieB iV A ;
Therefore
Some A is C.
Some Bis note- No C is B;
All B is A ; Some B is A ;
Therefore Therefore
Some A is nbtC. I Some A is not C.
Fourth Figure.
AllCisB;
All B isA;
Therefore
Some A is C.
All C is B :
No B is A ;
Therefore
No A isC.
Some C is B ; i No C is B ;
A 1 Bis A; All B is A ;
Therefore Therefore
Some A is C. ISomc A is not C,
No C is B ;
Some B is A ;
Therefore
Some A is not C.
' The following are some of the principal Rules to be observed
in drawing a correct conclusion.
Rule I.
One of the premises must be a Universal proposition.
Rule II.
Both premises must not be negative.
62 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Rule III.
If one of the premises is Ne2;ative, the conclusion must be
Negative.
Rule IV.
The Middle term must be distributed once, and once is suffi-
cient.
Rule V.
The Middle term muat not be ambiguous, i, e., it must be
used in the same sense in both premises.
Rule VI.
No term must be distributed in the conclusion, -which is un-
distributed in the premises.
Rem. 1. — From Universal premises, we may generally draw a Universal concla-
■i»D, but not always, as will b« seen by osamintng the following syllogism :
All gold is prtcioas;
All gold is metal ;
Therefore all metal is prtcious.
This coTJchision is incorrect, though the premi|es are Unifersal propositions.
The reason of this is, bpcause metal has a more extensive meaning thaa Gold.
The true conclusion is, So?ne metal is precious.
All birds are animals;
Horses are achnals ;
Therefore horsos are birds.
The fallacy of this ^-onclusion, arises from the Middle term not being distrihvied.
No Affirmative coni^lwsion can be proved in the ifecond figure; since the Mid. He
term is the predicate of both propositicns, and the predicate of no Affirmative pro-
position is or can be distribated.
When the conclu«ion or proposition to be proved, is stated first, it is called the
question ; and the premises, which follow, are said to assign the reason or cause ; as,
" Thou art a teacher come from God; for no man can do the miracles ..that thou
doest, except God be with him." But, when the premises are stated first, the propo*
sition to be proved is called the eonclnsion or inference ; as, " Cassar was a tyrant;
therefore he deserved death."
Rem. 2. Tbo.-e conjunctions which join on premises, are called causal— such ai
because, for, since, etc. ; but conjanctioBs wuich join on the conclusion, are called
illative — as therefore, then> hence, etc.
Rem. 8. — The major premise, in curreut discourse, is generally suppressed.
§ 3. When the predicate of each preceding proposition .be-
comes the subject of each succeeding proposition, and so on till
the last predicate agrees with the first subject, the process is
called a sorzYes, as illustrated in the following example: "A
miser covets much ; he that covets much, wants much ; he that
wants much is miserable ; therefore the miser is miserable."
A Regular Syllogism may be constructed upon any of the
rules of Syntax, or the principles upon which those rules are
COXSTRUCTIVK GRAMMAR. 63
based, by making the rule itself, or the principle upon which
it is based, the major proposition, as illustrated in the following
syllogisms :
The subject of the vcr'i must be in the nominative case.
He is the sulyect of a verb ;
Then he must be in the nominative case.
The object of a transitive verb, in the active voice, must be in the objec-
tive case.
John is the object of a transitive verb in the active voice ;
Then John must be in the objective case.
Adjectives belong to nouns or pronouns.
Wise is an adjective ;
Therefore icise belongs to a noun or pronoun.
Rem. 1- — Students may be pnilitubly cxoroisod in forraiag 8yUogt.;>u,'? on|||!he rules
of Syntax, nr the principles on which ihey are based, and applying tUeui lu correct-
ing fulso Syntax.
ItESf. 2.— As a scientific oxerciso of the reasoning faculty,2is iii'iispen^ably neces-
s*ry in making a rapid progress in the a3(^ui8iiion of Sv^i«nt!fic and^lingnal knowl-
edge, the author ha.-i baon lei t)coniH'i"t. as far a» puasiblo, Lotfii.il reasoning with
the study of i;raniinar. Indeed there is a very intimate conntotion between the twt^
sciences; siacd Graruimr is conversant about language unirersilly, and Lofio is
convorsaiu about lingunj^o in a p.irtiouUr way. Long cxocn.'ncu in teaching has
fuIiy convinced him taat without coust.icr exercise of the reasoning faculty, not
only a slow progress will be ui.tde, but that little or no interest will be felt in the
pursuit of .scientific knowledge.
Aujpie sxercisos will be found in ths symbolical syllogisms given above.
PART II,
CHAPTER I,
OF LAN GU AGE.
1 1. Language, from the Latin lingua— a, tongue, is the me-
dium through which mind travels to mind, or the instrument or
means by which the ideas and affections of mind and body are
communicated from one animal to another. Therefore brutes,
in a limited sense, possess the power of language ; for, by va-
rious inarticulate sounds, they make known their wants, desires
and sufferings.
Lano-uage is of two kinds— ,'?f>o;?:<J/i and written. The elements of spoken
language are articulate sounds, uttered by the voice which is formed by the
air issuing' through the glottis, a very small aperture in the vocal tube, or
wind-pipe, and modulated by the articulations of the vocal organs— such as
the throat, totigue, palate, teeth and lips. This is the original and proper
sense of the word langnatje. • . . >.
But as sounds are fleeting, and incapable of being conamunicated to a
creat distance, if men had no other means of communicating their thoughts,
their intercourse would be limited to a small compass, and their ideas would
be intrusted to memory and tradition only ; by which they would soon be
obscured, perverted or forgotten. Hence the necessity of the invention of
characters to represent sounds, exhibit them to the eye, and render them
durable. This was the origin of written language. The elements of this
lan-ruage are letters or characters, which, by consent of men and common
usage, are combined into words made to represent the sounds uttered by
the voice. It follows, therefore, that this medium through which thought
is transmitted from one mind to another, should be clearly understood by
aH who use it for the communication of their thoughts. Hence arises the
necessity of studying thoroughly the Grammar of the language, which we
employ for such a medium of communication or thought.
Rem. 1.— Gesticulation is a kind of universal langusge ; for, by means of certain
cestures, those who are barbarians to each other, are enabled, to a limited extent, to
communicate their thoughts, feelings and desires to each other. It is the language
in which the deaf and dumb converse ; and, when properly used, it is a powerful
auxiliary to vocal delivery.
CHAPTER II.
GRAMMAR.
§1. Ghammar, from the Greek gramma— a letter, may be
defined the science of letters, or the science of signs. Letters
are lingual sigm^ or the representatives of elementary sounds*
ee
ANALYTICAL^ ILLl.STRATIVE AND
Hence in a perfect language there would be as many signs as
there are sounds, or, in other words, as many letters as there
are elementary sounds ; then each sound would be represented
by its own appropriate character, and none other. But this ia
very far from being the case in the English language — there
being thirty-eight simple sounds, and but twenty-six characters
or letters to represent them. The necessary consequence is
that one letter must represent more sounds than one. Hence
arise much obscurity and many provincialisms.
Grammarians generally divide the twenty rix letters of the English lan-
guage into voirels and consonnrifs; and the consonants the}' subdivide into
mutes and semi voic els. This divisioxi is not founded in philosophic truih,
at least, some of tlie names are badly chosen. The n ord consmumfy from
con, together, and noito, to sound, sii^ndies a Ictler or a sound, that cannot
pound only together with some other sound, ytl they are said to have an
imperfect sound of themselves. The mutes, it is said, cannot be sounded
at all without the aid of a vowel ; as, b, p, t, d, k, etc. Now, this is palpa-
bly erroneous, for every sound in the language is susceptible of being ut-
tered in its own individual, elementary character. This has been clearly
demonstrated by Dr. Coinsiock, of Philadelphia.
A mo)c f.'hiiosophic, and constqnently a more truthful division of the
letters of the alphabet, is into three classes, vi/>, : tonics oc v<*wels, sub-
tonics' or sub-vowels, lind atonies or a-spiratcs. The tonics, from the Greek
tonos, 3^ tdne or sovnd^hixxe A\\t purest vocility ; tae sub-tonics, as their
name indicates, are inferior in vocaliiy ; and the atonies, as tlitir name in-
dicates, are wholly destitute of vocaliiy, and are only heard in the whisper-
ing voice.
In the following table, the thirty-eight elementary sounds and the manner
of representing theuj, are presented :
15 ToHics.
a
in States
a
" are
a
*' all
i
" that
e
" we
0
" met
i
" pine
i
" pit
o
" more
'6
" move
G
" on
fl
" tube
n
" up
11
" full
ou
" our
14 Si
jB Tonics.
b
in
bow
d
u
day
g
1
((
a
gay
love
m
ii
man
n
ii
no
ng
r
ii
ii
song
roll
th
ii
thou
V
ii
vow
w
ii
wo
y
((
yoke
7.
u
zone
Z
((
azure
9
Atonics
V
t
eh
k
in pin
" tin
" shade
" kite
8
f
th
h
wh
'•' sin
•' fume
" thin
" hat
'* what
Hem. ].— The reader will ob-'erre that C, ch, J, Q and A^ are not found in the
above table, ihe reasou of this if, iLtte letters rej resent no sounds which aie not
CONSTRUCTIVE OHAMMAR. 67
represented hj other chsrwcters. C tnkes fhe sound of k beforcs tbc totiics a, o and
u ; as cflt, cot, e»/t ; but before tbv totiicK <>, ». and y, it takes the sound of s; as
rent, city, e'c. ; and, in orean, it has the sound of sh.
Ch represents the oomlnnwd 6n'jn'!s of t and sh ; a« in church, cAin, etc. J, the
combined sounds of d in (/aj. aiid z in azure ; tK- in Job, John.
Q has the 8ouod of k; as in ooo^uer; and x haa tie sound of ks , ss in i rariise,
writ, etc., uf g-z ia exatnpU, »nd of ^■sA in anxious.
SECTION I.
TONICSORVOWELS.
§ 2. These are divided into Monothongs, Diphthotiffs, and
Triphthongs, In a Monothong, but one kind of sound is heard
throughout its concroto movement, the orgajie remaining in the
same position throughout its prolongation ; or, in other words,
its radical and vanish are the sauK). They arc the following :
a a tt e S I 8 u u
The Diphthongs consist of two kinHs of sound, which coalesce so inti-
mately that they appt-ar like one uniform sound. A I)i[>hthong- in form is
the union of two v.i*«ls, which are uttered so rapid!}- in succession, as to
be considered as foiuiinj; but one syilable; as ot in r*jV<j. A Diplithoufj,
in sound, has a characteristic sound for its radical, and another for its vanish.
The Diphthongs in sound are,
a i o u
>?F.M. 1. — The learner will obgorre that some of these Diphthong', when carried
tbroujfb a wide ranjto of pitch, as interrogations with surprise, become Triphthonfs.
(Pee Analysis of TripbthongH.)
. Triphthongs, in sound, consist of the union of three Towels in one sylla-
ble ; as ifw in rieir. Triphthonrrs, in form, consist of three kinds of sound,
which coale^icc so intimately that thoy appc.tr like one uniform sound.'
They are as follows :
O OU
The first* constituent of o, as well as ou, is a sound charac-
teristic of this element ; and the diphthong o constitutes the
second and third constituents of this triphthong. (See Com-
stock's System of Elocution.
§3. ANALYSIS OF DIPHTHONGS.
DIPHTnONGS. RADICALS. VANISH.
a a 1
i I i
<5 ii w
u u w
01 '1 i
The radical or vanish are called constituents.
$B ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE ANI?
§ 4, ANALYSIS OF TRIPHTHONGS.
TRIPHTHONGS.
RADICALS.
MEDIAN,
VANISH.
a
a
I
e
i
1
i
g
0
S
0
\f
ow
ow
b
w
«y or ai
a
I
e
oy or oi
a
I
e
uoy
0
I
e
SECTION II.
SUB-TONICS.
§ 5. B \s a, compound of vocality and aspiration ; tlie first
constituent, which is vocal, is formed with the lips closed ; the
second, by aspirating or whispering u^ at the moment of their
separation.
D coTisists of a vocal and aspirate sotmd. The first constituent is formed
with the tip of the tongue pressed against the gums of the upper incisory
teeth ; the second, by aspirating the vowe! u2 at the mcment of its re-
moval.
G^ is a compound of vocality and aspiration. The first constituent is
formed with the root of the tongue pressed against the curtain or vail of
the palate ; the second by aspirating the vowel u2 at the moment of its re-
moval.
RxH. 1. — Spffcial care should be taken not to render tSe second constituents of b,
d, and g vocal.
L is a pure vocal sound made with the tip of the tongue pressed against
the gums of the upper incisory teeth, and propelling the breath through
the mouth.
Jf is a nasal sound made with the lips closed and propeHing the breath
through the nose.
^is a nasal sound formed with the tip of the tongue pressed against the
gums of the upper incisory teeth, and propelling the breath through the
nose.
NG, as in song, is a nasal sound, formed with the root of the tongue
pressed gently against the vail of the palate, so as to propel the breath di-
rectly through the nose.
i^ is a vocal sound of which there are two varieties. The first is called
the smooth i?, and is made with the tip of the tongue elevated towards the
center of the roof of the mouth,- and propelling the breath through the
mouth. The second is called the trilled R, and is formed by causing the
tongue to vibrate against the gums of the upper incisory teeth while the
breath is propelled through the mouth. The R should be trilled when it
precedes a vowel ; as in roll, crush, etc., but should invariably be rendered
smooth when it follows a vowel ; as in air, etc.
T^ is a compound of vocality and aspn-ation, formed with the tip of the
tongue restiag against the inner surface of the upper incisory teeth.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 69
Fis also a compound of vocaliry and aspiration. It is formed with the
under lip pressed a{r;iinst the edge of t:ie upper incisory tooth.
TFisavocal sound, formed with the lips contracted as in the act of
whistling, and forcing out the hreath.
Fis a vocal sound, formed with the lips and tcelh a little separated.
Rkm — Caro must be ta'ren in forming this soun'l, to ooufino th« tip of the tongue
to the inner surCnco of tho under incisory teeth ; for, if it is permitted to riso lo thn
gums of the upper incisory teeth, tho sound of Z will pfa'oably be made instead of Y>
^, in zoncy is a buzzing sound, a compounH of vocality and aspiration. It
is made hy pressini; the tip of the tongue gently against the gums of the
upper incisors, and forcing Out tlie breath.
Z. as in azure, is formed with the tip of the tongue nearly in the same
position as Z in zone, though drawn a little farther back, and somewhat
widened, so as to enlarge the aperture formed by its upper surface atid the
roof of the mouth, through which tho breath is forced.
SECTION III.
ATONICS.
§ 6. The Atonies or aspirates, beihg destitute of that quality
of voice which is called vocality, ar%only heard in the whisper-
ing voice.
F, like V, is formed with the under lip pressed against the upper incisory
teeth.
n is the inceptive part of a vocal sound, aspirated in a particular way.
JImixj be uttered in as many varieties of ways ?s there are vowels in the
language, each requiring the same posture of the mouth, which tho vowel
itself requires. As ^merely represents a breathing as heard in the sigh,
in spelling phonetically or by sound, the pupils may call it Ac — the name
assigned it in the Hebrew alphabet.
^is formed by pressing the root of the tongue against the vail of the
palate, and aspirating the vowel u^.
P is formed by closing the lips, and then asperating the rowel tCi.
xS is a hissing hOund, and like s in zone, is formed with the tip of the
tongue pressed gently against the gums of the upper incisory teeth. It is
nearly the same as z in zone, usi)irated.
Sh is formed with the tongue in the same position as z in azure. Sh is
nearly the same sound as z in azure, aspirated.
7" is formed by prci^sing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the
upper incisory teeth, and then aspirating ihe vowel u\
Th, as i|0 thin, like /// in then, is ftjnned with the tip of the tongue
pressed against the upper incisory teeth. It is nearly the same sound as
the siibvowel th, aspirated.
Wh is tho inceptive purt of the vowel u^, aspirated in a particular way.
The sound which is produced in tho lormation nf this element is nearly the
same as lni\ whi.^pered. Wh requires the same position of the mouth
that the vowel W3 requires.
It is not intended that the table of ehmentary sounds should be commit-
ted to memory by tho pupils ; but th.it the Teacher should utter the. rounds
accurately in their elementary character — the pupils uttering them after
him.
yo analytical, illustrative and
Exercises.
In the following exercises, each word should be distinctly and slowly
uttered ; the pupils carefully observing the postures which the organs as-
sume in the utterance of each element. They should then point out the
Tonics, Subtonics, or Atonies, that may be found in each word, as exhibit-
ed in the following
Model. "An old man stood at the gate." An, — this word consists of two
elementary sounds — tonic and- subtonic. A^ is tonic, because it has the
purest vocality ; it is a m ^nothong, because its radical and vanish are the
same. iVis subtonic, because it is inferior to the tonics, in vocality. It is
formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the upper
incisory teeth, and propelling the breath through the nose ; and is, there-
fore, nasal.
Old consists of three elementary sounds. 0 is tonic, having the purest
vocality, it is a triphthong, because it consists of three constituents — (A^
O'i, ic. L is subtonic, and is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue
ag ainst the gums of the upper incisory teeth, an^ propelling the breath
through the mouth. D is also subtonic, and is formed by placing the tongue
in the same position as in forming the sound of i, and aspirating the vowel
«3 at the moment of its removal.
Man consists of three elementary sounds. M is subtonic, and is formed
by closing the lips, and prop^hng tlie breath through the nose, and is,
therefore, nasal. J.4 is tonic. N is subtonic.ljand is formed as described
above.
Stood consists of four elementary sounds. 8 is atonic, because it is des-
titute of vocality, and is formed by gently pressing the tip of the tongue
against the gums of the upper incisory teeth. T is also atonic, and is
formed by pressing the tip of the tongue' against the gums of the upper
incisory teeth, and aspirating the vowel u'i at the moment of its removal.
00 represents the sound of «3, and is a monothong tonic. D is subtonic,
and is formed as already described.
The consists of two elementary sounds. Th is subtonic, and is formed
by pressing the tip of the tongue against the edge of the upper incisory
teeth. ^2, second sound, is a monothong tonic.
Gate consists of three elementary sounds. G is subtonic, and is formed
by pressing the root of the tongue against the vail of the palate, and aspi-
rating the vowel u\ A\ is tonic, and is a diphthong in sound. T is atonic,
and is formed as already described.
Rbk. — Sach questions as the following, may be used to advantage. Why is J.4
tonic? "Why & 7nonotho7ig P What is meant by a radical, and what by vanish
sound ? Why is JV subtonic ? How is it formed ? "Why is it nasal ?
Examples for Practice. •
As for man his days are as grass. Three pines bend from its face. False
"sounds often fall near him. The sun shines on the smooth lake. The
storm of war is past. From your fair cheek the rose may fade. Life is
short; but art is long. God set the bow in the clouds. Saul died by his
own hands. He twists the texts to suit the sects. When he comes, we
shall hear the news.
OON8TRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 71
SECTION IV.
SYNTHETICAL PROCJSSS OF LANGUAGE.
§ 7. Letters united form syllables, syllables form words,
words properly arranged, form sentences, and sentences form
a discourse or oration.
Analysis of Words.
The analysis of a word consists, first, into resolving it into its component
syllables, and, second, each syllable into the elementary sounds of which it
is composed.
A syllable is a single vocal impulse, or it is that part of a word which is
bounded by a single radical and vanisli movement of the voice. It may
consist of one elementary sound; as, t?, e, etc., or as many assciY?tof these
elementary sounds, without destroying the singleness cf the vocal impulse;
as, in the word strange^ strandzh.
A monosyllabic word is a word of one syllable; as, Man.
A dissyllabic word is a word of iioo syllables ; as, Manly.
A trissyllabic word is a word of three syllables ; as, Manliness.
A polysyllabic word is a word of nmny syllables ; as, Ambiguity.
ifodellst. ^'^ Nightly.'''' This is a dissyllabic word, because it consists
of two syllables. Night is a syllable, because bounded by a single radical
and vanish movement; it consists of three elementary sounds, represented
by «., i, g, h, and t. Nis a subtonic, because it is inferior in vocality to
the tonics. It is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums
of the upper incisory teeth, and propelling the breath through the nose ; it
is, therefore, nasal. /I, first sound, is tonic, because it has the purest vo-
cality,— it is a diphthong in sound, because it has o?ie sound characteristic
of its radical, and another for its vanish. T is atonic, because destitute of
vocality. It is formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums
of the upper incisory teetli, and aspirating the vowel ?i3 at the moment of
its removal. Lp is a syllable, because bounded by a single radical and
vanish movement of the voice, — it consists of two elementary sounds, rep-
resented by Zand y. iT is subtonic, because inferior in vocality — it is
formed by pressing the tip of the tongue against the gums of the upper
incisory teeth, and forcing the breath through the mouth. F represents
the second sound of i, and Is tome, because it has the purest vocality, — it
is a monothong, because its radical and vanish are the same.
A word having been analyzed, should be phonetically spelled without
mentioning the name of any letter ; a.s, Nit-li.
The learner will observe that g and h have been lost in analysis, since
they represent no elementary sound.
After the pupil shall have been sufficiently drilled in a full description of
the vocal phenouicna in the analysis of words, as exhibited in the first ex-
ample, the exercises may be contracted as in Model 2d.
Model 2d. '* J fan.''' is a monosyllabic word, and consists of three ele-
mentary sounds, represented by m, </, and n. M is a subtonic, nasal soimd,
formtd by closing the lips and j)iopelling the breath through the nose.
A'^ , fourth sound, is a monothong tonic. N is a subtonic, nasal sound,
foi"mcd by pressing the Uji of tlie tongue against the guins of the upper
incisors, and forcing the breath through the nose.
72 analytical illustrative and
Exercises.
The evenini^ vras fine, and the fall-orbed moon shone with uncommon
splendor. The earth, with tcmjyests, may grow dark. Who ever imagined
that such an ocean exists. The man of talents struggles through difficul-
ties severe. He vras amiable, respectable, unbearable, intolerable, un-
manageable, terrible. We leave your fore^'^s of leasts for our iorests of
men. Can you say crackers, crimo, cruelty, crutches ? It vras the severest
storm of the season ; but the masts stood through the gale. He twists the
texts to suit the different sects. He sawed six, sleek, slim saplings. Over-
whelmed with whirlwinds and tempestuous fire. His kindness overwhelms
me. Its poison, through your veins, will roll, and darkness overwhelm
your soul. . Thou talTcedst of what thou understoodest not. Thorns and
thistles shall it bring forth unto thee. He was Zong, Zcan, and lank, and
laujxhed loudly. Aiound the hearth, the crackling f;iggots blaze. The
heights, depths, and breadths cf the subject, lie beyond the utmost reach
of his intellect. Get thee behind ine, Satan; for thou savorest not the
things that be of God. The severest storm that lasts till morn. From
thy throne in the sky, thou looTc'st, and laugA'si at the storm, and pjiid^at
the bolt of Jove.
The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay,
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ;
But fixed bis word, his saving power remains,
Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns.
'Twas twilight; for the sunless day went down.
O'er the waste of waters, like a veil.
Which, if V. ithdrawn, would but disclose the frown
Of one Vvho hates us.
i?ound and round the ?'Mgged rocks,
The ragged rascal ran.
When a twisi^v a twisimg, will twist him a tiDist,
For fw?>ting his twist he three twines doth intwist ;
But, if one of the twines, of the twist doth untwist, "
* The twine that untwisteth, untwisteth the ttoist.
Rem. — Each word in the above exerclEes, tbould be first analyzed and synthetiiffed,
or spelled phonetically ; eanh senten,c6 should then be read slowly and distinctly,
with special attention to words and elements marked iu italics.
CHAPTER III.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
t
§ 1. English Grammar is the science of the English lan-
guage. It comprises both a Science and an Art ; as an Art,
it teaches how the Engl sh language should be written and
spoken ; as a Science, it teaches why one form of speech should
be used rather than another. Art tells hoiv — /Science tells why.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. ' * 13
The English Grammar well understood both as a Science and
an Art, will enable any one to speak and write the language
correctly.
§ 2. Grammar is divided into four parts, viz. : OethoqraphY,
Etymology, Syntax and Pkosody.
Orthography teaches the art of spelling correctly. This
must be clTiefly learned from the Spelling-book and Dictionary.
Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, their va-
rious inflections, and the derivation of words. •
Syntax teaches the correct construction and arrangement of
sentences. ^
Prosody teaches the '^\i%t pronunciation of sentences, and the
rules of versification.
CHAPTER IV.
ORTUOGRAPHT.
§1. ORTHoGRAniY treats of the nature and properties of
letters, and of the art of spelling words correctly.
Letters are the elements of written language, and the representatives of
vocal sounds. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its j)roper letters.
Rules foji Spelling.
Such is the irregularity of the English orthography and the diversified
ways of spelling words, that a great deal cannot be done in acquiring the
art of spelling by means of rules; yet, as some letters arc changed, some
rejected, and others added in foiniing derivative words, by means of pre-
fixes and suffixes to their respective ladicals, it is believed the following
rules will be useful : i
Eadicfd words are roots from which others are formed or derived. They
arc couiparativcly few. Derivative words arc such as are formed from rad-
ical words. They are ver}' numerous ; many are frequently derived from
the same root ; as, from man, come manli/^ manliness, manful, vianfully, etc.
Rule I.
M'^nosyllabic radicals, ending in/, Z, or 8, generally double the final oon-
soniint when it is preceded by a single vowel ; as hill, staff, pass.
E.\C*<-'''nii!« — nf, if\ in .T!, /;/•* ^rns, y,:s, his, ""'• '" ""'^ '/•"«.
Rule li.
Those mono«yI"nMc rndicals which end in any consonant except/ /, or«,
preceded by a ^i^ ■' ■ -r i ' •■* • i - . ■ .'.):, .i , ^, . i ,..,.. .-..,,. .,g^
man, hat, sit, ei .
ExceptionB— A«/r, adJ, Out/, egg, odd, err, inn, Lunn, purr, buzz.
V4 ♦ AWAtrVtOAt, llLtTSTRATITB AND
Rule III.
The fincal « of a radical word, is usually rejected when the suflSx com-
mences with a vowel ; as, 7nove, mov-ing, aale, sal-able, please, pleas-ure.
Exceptions — dyeing, to color, singeing, to scorch, retain the « to distinguish them
from dying, to expire, and singing.
Rule IV.
The final « of a radical word, is generally retained when the suflBx com-
mences with a consonant ; as, hope — hope-les»\ move — move-ment.
Rule V.
Words ending in Me, drop te before the suflBx cy ; as, private — priv-acp.
Rule VI.
Words ending in ant or ent, lose the t upon receiving the suflBx ce or ct/;
»s frequent, frequency ; eminent, eminence ; arrogant, arrogan-ey.
Rule VII.
When words ending in y, preceded by a comonant, take the suflBxes, ea,
est, ed, ness, and merit, the y is changed into i ; &s,Jiy, flies ; happy, hap-
pier, happiiest, happiness; carry, carried y accompaiiy , accompaniment \
but, if the y is preceded by a voioel, it is retained ; as, luy, huy-er ; valley^
valleys.
Rule VIII.
When words ending in y, take the suffix ing, the y is retained ; fly, fly-
ing ; try, try-ing.
Rule IX.
The final consonant of a monosyllable, if preceded by a single vowel, is
doubled before a suflBx beginning with a vowel ; as, iag, lag-gage ; spot,
tpot-ted.
Rule X.
When radicals which end in e, take the suffix ish or ing, the e is drop-
ped; as, White, whi-tish ; Blue, ihie-ish ; Place, plac-ing.
Rule XI.
The final consonant of any word accented on the last syllable, if preceded
by a single vowel, is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as,
Delar, debar-red; Occur, occur -rence.
Rule XII.
The final consonant, when not preceded by a single vowel, or when the
word is not accented on the last syllable, remains single upon the addition
of a suffix ; as, Spoil, spoil-ing ; Suffer, suffer-ed.
RtJiE XIII.
The final i of a radical word is omitted when the silffix begins with i ;
as, Alkali, alkalise ; Dei, De-ifin.
CONSTRUCTIVE ORAMMIR.
RlLi; XIV
The final 7/ of a radical word, when precede*! b}' the letter C, is general-
ly rejected before a suffix beginning with a or o ; as, Purity^ j)urit-an;
lelicity, /elieit-ous.
Rule XV.
Words ending in/or fe commonly change /"into v, when a suffix is ad-
ded, beginning with a vowel ; as, Mischief, mischie-vous ; Wife, wines.
Rule XVI,
"Words ending in er or <?r, often drop the « or o before suffix commencing
with a vowel ; as, Victor, viclrix ; Wonder, wondrous.
Rule XVII.
Words ending in le, preceded by a consonant, drop these letters upon
receiving the suffix Zy; as. Able, ably ; Idle, idly.
Rule XVIII.
Words ending in hlc, before th-c suffixes ity and itie^, take t b«tweoa
the letter b and I ; as, Able, ability, abilities.
Rule XIX.
Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as simple
words of which they are coKiposad; as, Glass-house, shy-light, there-by,
here-after. Many words endini: in double I, are exceptions to the general
rule; as. Already, welfare, Christntas, etc.
Rem. — After these rules shuU have been committed to memory, the pupils should
bo exereieed ia spelling under each rule till thoy become familiar with its uppliention.
CHAPTER v..
ETYMOLOGY.
§ 1. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their
various modifications, and derivations,
§ 2. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent
of men as signs of ideas.
§ 3, Words, in respect of their formation, are either Radi-
cal or Derivative, Simple or Compound.
A radical word, being the root from which others are formed, can not be
reduced to any simpler word ; as, Man, act.
A derivative word is formed fiom some radical word by means of a pre-
fix or suffix; as, Man-/aZ, trans aci.
1& ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AKD
A simple word consists of oa« vp-ord only. It may be either radical or
derivative ; as, Act, actor.
A compound word consists of two or more simple words united by a hy-
phen ; aSy Dealh-UJce, all-wise, glass-house, etc.
§ 4. Words, in respect of their form, are either Declinable
or Indeclinable.
A declinable word is one whose form varies on assuming different gram-
matical relations in a sentence ; as, Re, his, him.
An indeclinable word undergoes no change of form, whatever may be its
grammatical relations ; as, Good, hadly, etc.
§ 5. Words, in rgspect to their office or use, are dividod into
several classes called Parts of Speech.
CHAPTER VI.
pLASSIPICATION OF VfORDS.
§ 1. Words are naturally divided into two classes — Primary
and Secondary.
The^rsi^ class consists of words which are essential to the lansruage of
mei}, on which other words depend, or to which they bear a branch relation.
To this class belong the noun, and verl); for without them no sentence can
exist, and with them a complete sentence can be formed; as, "Rivers
flow." But it should be borne in mind that the verb itself is, in some de-
gree, ."secondary to the noun ; for the noun or name is the only word which
can make sense of itself; the verb, nevertheless, should be regarded as a
primary part of speech. The noun being the first and leading part of
speech, may be considered as bearing a trunk relation to all the other parts
of speech ; and consequently all the others bear a branch relation to it,
§ 2. The second class consists of words of secondary or subor-
dinate use, or such as are dependent on other words in con-
struction. Of these there are seve»xl species.
1. Words which supply the place of other words, are called iJ'i'onouns or
subsiitutes.
2. "Words, which merely limit the meaning of nouns, are called articles.
3. Words, which express the qualities of things, and which are attached
to the names of those things, are called afJjcr,tives. Words, which point out
nouns by some distinct specification, are called specifying ailjeetices.
4. Words, whieli are derived from verbs, and depend on nouns or pro-
nouns in construction, are c?iY\eA part iciples.
^ 5. Words, which modify the sense of other words by expressing the
manner of action, or degree of quality, are called adterls.
6. Words, which are placed before other woi ds, and ahow the relation
between them and those words which precede in construction, are called
prepo'Mions.
CONSTRUCTIVE ORAMMAK.. V7
7. Words, which join together parts of a sentence, or parts of a dis-
course, in a regular construction, arc called conjunctions.
8. Words, which are throvt'n between the pirts of sentences, to express
emotion or feeling, are called interjections. But as these words have no
grammatical dependence on otlier words, in construction, they can hardly
be said to belong to icritten language.
According to the above scheme, it will be perceived that there are ten
parts of speech in the English language, namely, — the Nount, Vekb, Pko-
NOUN, Akticlk, Adjective, PAKTicirLE, Adverb, Pkepositiox, Conjunction,
and Interjection.
Rem. — It is not pretended that this claspiiioafion is prhnnry. but it i<! convenient.
A primnry cl.issilication would plioi' the w^'jc/e with the adjective, the pronoun with
the no'tK, or naino. and iho participl6 with the verb.
ClIArTEU VII.
NOUNS.
§ 1. Noux, from the Latin nomen — a name, is the name of
any thing that exists, Avhether material, or iflainaterial ; as,
man, wood, hope, virtue.
Nouns are of two kinds — common and proper.
Common nouns are 'the names of a s^ji^c/^s or class \ as, vroman, ,tree,
river.
Proper nouns are the names of particular individuals ; as, Marj', Dela-
ware.
A noun comprising several persons in one collective body is called a col-
lective noun ; as, Congress, family, army. ,
§ 2. Gender, person, number and case belong to nouns.
§ 3. Gender is the distinction of sex.
As tliere are but two sexes, noun?!, strictly speaking, have but two gen-
ders, but it is thought to be convenient in parsing to apply four, namely,
Masculine, FiMiiinino, JSTeutcr, and Common.
The Jftsculine, froui the Latin mud — a male, includes all males ; as, man,
prince.
Tlie Feminine, from the htiixnfemina, a woman, includes all females; as,
woman. t;irl.
The Neuter includes all which are neither males or females ; as, book,
hat.
N iiiis which .are equally apph'wl to both fiexe?, are called common* gen
dcr ; a.s, triend, child, cousin.
♦ Nentcr and common, rb npjplicd lo ri-ndfr, .ire not important, einco the neuter Is no
gender, and the common is citlier masculine or feminine.
?8 AWAlYWOAi, IlLUiSTRATlVE AHD
t
PERSON.
§ 4. Person distinguishes the relation of a noun to the speaker.
Nouns have three persons — the First, Second, and Third.
The First person deno,tes the spea.lcer, — the Second the person or thing
spoken to, — and the Third person denotes the person or thing spoken of,
or about.
NUMBER.
§ 5. Number is the distinction of unity and 'plurality.
Nouns have two numbers — the Singular and Plural.
The Singular denotes but one ; as, a book.
The Plural more than one ; as, books.
CASE.
§ 6. Case, from eado, to fall, means state or condition. Case
distinguishes the relation of a noun to a verb, preposition, par-
ticiple, or some other noun.
Nouns have three cases — the Nomihative, Possessive and Objective.
The JS/'ominative case indicates the actor or siibject of the verb ; as, " The
&(?y runs." "e/awe was hurt."
The Possessive case indicates possession and ownership ; as, " The hoy^s
hat."
The 01>jective case indicates the object of an, action or a relation ; as,
" Charles struck John on the head."
Rem. 1. — NouDB may be divided into Material and Immaterial, Abstract and Sub-
stantial.
Rem. 2. — A Material noun is composed of matter; as, wood, atone, iron, water,
etc.
Rum. 3 — An Immaterial noun is not composed of matter; as, spirit, vanity
pride.
Ri-M. 4. — Abstract nouns are the names of qualities, abstracted or considered
apart from the objects to which they belong; as, whiteness, coldness, roundness,
honesty, etc.
Rem. 5. — Substantial nouns are such as denote real existence, whether ^material or
imrnuterial, as opposed to the mere creatures of the imagination or s\ich as denote
the absence or non-existence of any thing; as, body, spirit, etc.
Model. " Raleigh is the capital of North- Carolina." Raleigh is a Proper
noun, of the Neuter gender, Third person, Singular, and in the Nomina^
tive case to is, according to Rule 1. /* is an Irregular, Intransitive verb,
Indicative mode, Present tense, and is of the third person, Singular num-
ber, agreeing with its Nominative Raleigh, according to Rule 6. Capital
is a common noun of the Neuter gender, Third person, Singular number,
and of the Nominative case, predicated of Raleigh, according to Rale 2.
Of is a preposition, and connects capital and Jforth Carolina, and shows
the relation between them. North Carolina is a Proper noun of the Neu-
ter gender. Third person. Singular number, in the Oljecti'oe case, and
governed by of, according to Rule 21.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. .79
Rem. — Parsing consists, first, in naming the part «f speech or class of words to
which the word belongs; secondlj, in naming tho propertioc! or accidents belonging
to it; and, thirdly, in pointing out the relations which it sustains to other words in
a sentence — such as government, agreement, modifii'ation, etc.
Exercises.
Thomas is a boy. George went to Cincinnati in a Steamboat. The cat
scratched the dog. The sun gives light. Fishes swim in the sea. The
snail does not move quite so fast as the eagle or hawk. The Ohio is a
beautiful river. I, John, saw the Holy City. James, where is John ?
James' book lies on the table. New York is a large city. The Neuse is a
navigable river. Adam named all creatures. The fire burns wood. I, Paul,
am an apostle of Jesus Christ. The moon shines by night. Honesty is
the best policy. Whiteness is the name of a quality. That law is a nul-
lity. The army has encamped. Children play on the green grass. The
nation mourns. Jesus fed the multitude.
CHAPTER VIII
VERBS.
§ 1, A Verb is a Avord which* asserts or affirms ; as, " The
river floivs."
Verbs are divided into Tfansitive and Intranslthe, Regular and Irregu-
lar^ Auxiliary and Defective.
A Transitive Verb has the power to affect an object ; as, " Jane writes
letters."
Transitive Verhs are distinguished by voice.] A Transitive Verb is in
the active voice, when its nominative performs the action; as, '^Brutus
slew Ciesar." A Transitive verb is in the passive voice when its nominative
receives the action which it asserts ; as, " Ocu.vzr teas slain by ^rutus."
A verb is Intransitive when it has no power to affect an object; as, "The
hirdjlcs."
A verb is Regular when its past tense and perfect .participle can be
formed by annexing ed or d to the present tense ; as, walk.; walked ; love,
loved.
A verb is Irregular when' its past tense and perfect participle are formed
by changing the form of the primitive word ; as, see, saw, seen.
Av.riliary verbs help other verbs to form ]\L)des and Tenses ; as, do, be,
will, have, ma3% can, must, might, could, would, shall, and should.
A Defective verb can not be conjugated through all the Modes and Tenses ;
as, ought.
Verbs have Mode, Tense, Person and Number.
* The verb ia .ilso used in tsking questions, coumauding, etc. ; but still it it? regarded as
expressing something of the nature of an affirmation.
t By voice is meant the iuncction or form of the verb, which akows the relation of the
subject to the action expressed by it.
80
ANALYTICAL ILLUSTRATIV'S AN&
SECTION I.
MODES,
§ 2. Mode, from tlie Latin modus — manner, is the manner
of representing affirmation.
Verbs have five modes — the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential,
the Imperative, and the Infinitive.
The Indicative Mode affirmr, [lOHitively and without limitation ; as, ''She
loves."
The Suhjtinetive Mode afSrms a thing .«5uhject *o some condition or limir
tatityi ; as, "If Eliza Ktudy, she will improve."
The Potential Mrnfe expresses possibility, lihertj', power, -will, or obliga-
tion ; as, " It may rain," etc.
The Imperative IioJe is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, or
permitting ; as, " Obey my precepts," etc.
The Ivfivitite Moiie does not limit the affirmation to any particular sub-
ject; ap, "Tow.alk,"
The Mode of the verb nripc; from the various tvaj^s in vrhich affirmation
is made concerning the subject.
The pupil's perception of Mode may be aided by an ocular illustration.
This is done in Biaijram No. 3.
3" -Subjuncl
LLtfc>jii.Jb:"'ik*£iii"J'Jil-'~>-
The perpendicular o./.i ...r; represents th'e s»uV)joct of aiSrmation.
Figure 1 represents what is affirmed indicatively ; as the figure is in
juxta position with the subject, it shows that whatever i^ indicatively pre-
dicated, belongs absolutely to the subject; as, "The bird flies.''' "Job
was patient."
Figure 2 illustrates the Subjunctive Mood, or what is predicated with
some limitation ; as but one of the parailei lines* of which the figure is
composed, is in juxta position with the subject, it shows that what is af-
firmed of the subject, may or may not btlong to it; as, "If Job was pa-
tient." "If the bird llv."
CONSTRUCTIVB ORAMMAR. 81
Figure 3 illustrates the Potential Mode, or what is affirmed potentially ;
as the fifjure is not in juxta position ^vitl^ the subject, it shows that what-
ever is atFirined potentially, docs not belong absolutely to the subject, but
only the probability, power, lit)erty, necessity, etc., of action or quality is
predicated; as, "The bird can tly." "John may be good."
Figure 4 illustrates the Imperative Mode, or what is affirmed imperatively.
In this Mode, the subject is commanded to actor to possess a quality ; it is
clear that at the time of command, the action or quality required does not
exist in the subject, but, as it is presumed that the speaker has power to
enforce obedience, there is a very strong probability that what is command-
ed will be performed. The figure, therefore, though not in juxta position
with the subject, is made to approach very near it; as, " Obey my pre-
cepts."
Figure 5 illustrates the Infinitive Mode ; as the figure is not connected
with the subject, biit with the part of the diagram which represents the
pie'licate, it shows that the Infinitive never makes a direct affirmation con-
cerning the subject, but depends upon some other element in construction ;
as, " lie went to join the army."
In this example it is clear to join has no constructive relation with' the
subject he; as, he to join would make bad soynse.
SECTION II.
TENSE .
§3. Tknse, from the Latin fcj^^jtfs, means time. Tense, tlien,
is the distinction of time.
V.rhs hov(! six tenses — the Piiesknt, tiie Pas"^, the Puufkct, the Pluper-
fect, the FcTUiiE, nnd tho FuTruu-PEKKKCT. '
Tlie Present tense denotes present time; as, ''I write."
'J'he Pii-st tunse denotes simply past tiniv ; as, " I wrote."
The Perfect tense denotes what is past and finished, but is also connected
with the present time; a.s, "I have written."
The Pluperfect tense denotes time which is not simply past, hut prior to
*some otlier time which is also [last ; at^, " I had wntcen the letter before
the mail arrived."
The Future tense denotes simply future time ; as, " I shall write."
The Future- Perfect ten.se denotes an action that will be ])ast at or hefore
A future time specified; as, " 1 shall have liuislied the work by the appoint-
ed time."
The pupi"s perception of the divi.sion of time, as indicated by the tenses
of the Veil), may be greatly ait^ed by Diagram No. 4, which should be
drnwn upon the Ulackboard, and fully explained.
If there is sufficient rcom on the board, the Diagram should remain on
it, that the pupil may compare the time indicated by the verb, which he
may be paising, with that niarkcd upon the boaid. This will not only give
the pupil a cleiirer idea of time, but it will also make a much more lasting
impression on the memory.
The space included by the vertical lines (1) represents present time.
The f-p ice, on the lelt of the vertical lines, represents past time, and that
on the riglit of the vertical lines, represents future time.
82
ANALYTIOAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Figure 2, which consists of but one line, having no connection with the
Present, illustrates the Past tense of the verb. This tense is properly used
in speaking and writing, when both the event and the period of time in
which it occurred are past ; as, "Philosophers made great discoveries last
century."
p,.&
■ e 5 \
. 6 • \
or end.
,
- ; ■ .. ..,_._.. ...- '.
Figure 3, v»'hich consists of two parallel lines, illustrates the Perfect
tense. This tense embraces a period of time which is not only connected
with the present, but frequently extends into the future, as shown by the
first line in the figure. This period, as a whole, consists of three compo-
nent parts;— .the Event part, marked E, w'hich is past, the Speaking part,
marked S, v^•hich is present, is the time occupied in uttering the sentence,
and the Post-speaking part, marked P, which is future, denotes that portion
of the period of time, subsequent to the uttering of the sentence. But the
period embraced by this tense of the verb, sometimes only approaches the
Present, as shown'by the second parallel line; this is the case when the,
speaker refers to all the past part of his lift; ; as, " / ham never seen trees ^
so tall."
This tense is correctly used in speaking aiui writing, when the period of
time in which the event occurred, is connected with the Present; as, "I
hare studied hard th\stoeeh"
Fif'Ajrc 4, which consists of two lines connected, illustrates, the Pluper-
fect tense.
When two past events arc connected in sense, the Pluperfect is correctly
employed in the prior past of the two events ; as, " The thief had escaped
before" the goods were missed." That these two ai'e connected in sense, is
obvious; for when the former is uttered, the piind is so much under the
influence of the expectation of the latter, that it is disappointed if it is
withheld. "The thief had esoaped"!— and wh;a else? before the goods
were missed.
Figure 5, which consists of a single line, illustrates the Future tense.
This shows that this tense of the Verb denotes future time siipply, hav-
ing no connection with any event or time. This tense is correctly used
when future time is simply indic."ited.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 83
Figure 6, which consists of two lines connected, iUustrates the Future-
Perfect tense.
When two future events are connected in construction, thi'? tense is cor-
recti}' used in the prior future of these two events; as, "John icill have
completed his task by the nppointed time.
This tense is called Future-Perfect, because the action or event will bo
completed at or Icforc the post future event with which it is connected.
SECTION III.
PERSON AND NUMBER. »
§ 4. Person and Number are not mdejjenderU pj'opcrties of the
Verb, for the verb depends upon its nominative for these pro-
perties. Hence, in ol*der to know the person and number of
the verb, you must look to its nominative.
The variations which the verb undergoes, takes place principally in the
Present tense, and are called pei'soual terminations. A nominative of the
second person singular, solemn style, requires the verb to end in t, st, or
est; but the same nominiitive, in familiar style, does not require the verb
to assume these terminations ; bnt the verb generally takes the plural form.
Some good writers, hoivever, associate a verbof the singular form with
such a nominative, in the past tonse ; as, *' Withers, Where was you standing
during the transaction ?"'
A nominative of the third per.son, singular, familiar style, requires the
verb to assume s or es for its personal terminations, and, in the solemn
style, tJi or eth.
The plural nominative of any person clears the verb of these tt^mina- ■
tions, and generally a nominative of the first person singular has the same
effect.
Rev. I. — Tho gecond ppr.-on singul.ar, solemn style, requires the variation of the
verb in the past tense, ns vrell as in the present; '• Thou knewesf that I was an aus-
tere njsn." " Thou m'(7/A-(y/.9< abroad before thou icasZ able." Tho diffi(^ulty of ut-
tering such torrainations, especially in in e past tense of regular verb.'f, is no doubt
one of the leading causes which has led to their disoontitiuance in familiar style.
Even the society of Friends, who conscientiously adhere to the solemn style, has, in
a great measure, rejected those terminations in f.imili.-ir intercourse; as, "Thou did
put thy trust." " When thon was here.," etc. Those of them who have less gram-
inatic.-d attainments, frequently substitute the objeotivo case thee for the nominative
thou, and associate Vvitli it a ve b of the third person singular of tha present, a,a
well as the past tense : a<>, " Is thee well ?" •' Did thef go to church ?"
Rkm. 2. — When anxiliarios are employed, thoy always undergu the variations in-
stead of the principal verb; as, '• Thou who hast been a witneKs of the fact,* caws^
state it." When the verb do is used as the principal verb, it takes tho termination
est; as, "When thi;u doest alms," etc.; but, when it is used us an auxiliary, it
takes the termination al; as, " Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head
of heath."
Rem 3. — Those auxiliaries, used to form the potential mode, do not vary to agree
with any noijiinjiiivp. exccnt n ndininativo of the second )>('rson singtdar, soUinn
style; hnt mns I ; as, '|Thou must gu" S^ shonlJ be u^id,
and not fsf. a • Thuu mightst, couldst, wiildst, or slwuldst
Kkm. 4. — Tbo -i>lemn style is used in lb i Holy Scriptures in addresses t-^ the
Deitv, and is penerBJIy prolerred in poetry. It is aluo^sed, nc has already been in.
tim'itod, by Iho society of Friends, or Quakers, fr'iin cuuseientious scruples, nor
should they be censured for this, bat, on the contrary, rather praised.
84 A>JXLTTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVB AND
SECTION IV.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE VERB.
Authors differ very much with respect to the classification of the Tcrb. That given'
by Mr. Murray is the most common. It divides verbs into three classes, viz., Active,
Passive, and Neuter. The Neuter verb in this classification embraces all verbs, the
passive excepted, which have no power to effect an object. But many of these verba
possess the highest degree of action, ana flatly contradict Mr. M.'s definition of a
neuter verb, viz., ''A verb neuter erpr«s«es neither action nor passion, but being, or
a state of being." " The horse rz/zis." " The bird _^i<-s." Tell the pupil that runs
and flies are neuter verbs, and, as sach, express no actven, and you will contradict
the plainest Svidence of his senses, and introduce darkness and confusion into all
his ideas of action.
Rem. 2.— Others have divided the verb into four classes, viz.. Active Tnnsitive,
Active Intranfitive, Passive and Neuter. This classification is preferable to the
former; but by no means free from objections. It is no easy task, even by those
skilled in language, to draw ihe lino of demarcation between tho intransitive and
neuter verbs. " The child wept itself sick ; but it slept a short nap, and slept itself
well again ;" and yet slept is called a neuter verb.
Rem. 3. — Some, perceiving the dilSculties with which these theories are encum-
bered, have, with one fell stroke, swept away all division, and clothed all verbs,
without exception, with a transitive power. It is natural for man to run from one
extreme to another; hence the difficulty in efi'ecting any reformation, of keeping
within its proper limits.
Rem. 4. — The classification which we have adopted, and which recognizes but two
classes of the verb, viz.. Transitive and Intransitive, if not wholly free from objec-
tions, appears to us ta be decidedly the best, inasmuch as it is the most simple, and
EufiBcientiy comprehensive.
Re:m. 6. — Nothing can be more obvious than the fact that every verb must either
be transitive or intransitive , it either has the power to eflfect an object, or it has
not. Where^ then, is the necessity for Neuter and Passive verbs. Thera \i nothing
in nature which is perfectly quiescent — not a sinjrle particle of matter that is not
acted upon by principles which necessarily produce motion • then we need no class
of verbs to affirm what does not e.xist, or what is not the fact. " But they seem to
be at rest." Why should we cavil about what seems to be, when we know what it.
t- As to the paflsive verb, it is substantially transitive, according to Mr. Murray's
own definition. "A verb passive," says he, " espresses a passion, or a sufl'erin j, or
the recsiving of an action ; and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an
agent bj' which it is acted upon." Now, if a verb necessarily implies an agent
■which performs the action, atid an object which receives the action, what more is
wanting to establish the transitive character of such a verb? But the passive does
all this; then the passive verb is inevitably transitive. It not only has the power to
afi'ect an object, but it absolutely does it; since the nominative is the object affected
by sush a verb,
Dr. Webster, speaking of the classification of verbs, says, " FrOm the various uses
and significations of verbs, have originated several divisions or classes. The only
one in°Eno'lish which seems to be correct, and sufliciently comprehensive, is into
transitive and intransitive."
#Rem. 6. — Voice is the only distinction necessary to be made in transitive verbs;
this has already been explained. It may, hovrever, be proper to remark that the
passive voice may sometimes be used to better advantage than the active. This is
the cas», first, when wc wish to conceal the agent; as, "My knife is stolen ;"
secondly, when the nominative of the passive verb is rhe principal subject of dis-
course ; for instance, if one were writing ihelife of Csesar, in narrating the circum-
stances of his assassination, it would be better to say that " Cajsar was assassinated
by Brutus." than "Brutus a.'-sassiuated ( aesar;" and, thirdly, in order t'l prevent
monotony when we wish to repeat a sentiment which has been expres'sed in the ac-
tive voice.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 85
SECTION V.
REMARKSONMODBS. ,
Astothenttme and number of Modes, it may bo observed that authors differ
widely. W'e have, however, adopted both without fully approving of either.
As a verb in the indicative mode affirms absolutely, without limitation, whether
nffirmatively or negatively, if it extended no further, no objection eould bo urged
against the name. But the indicative, as well as the potential, embraces interroga-
tory expressions. Though there is something of the nature of an affirmation in
every question, yet Ihero is a marked difTerence between a positive affirmation and
51 question ; hence Dr. Webster came to the conclusion that it would bo better to
adopt a negative and an interrogative mode, were it not for the inconvenience of
having modes of modes. Asthe diffarence between a negative and a positive affirma*
tion, consists in the modifying influence exerted upon tho verb by the adverb not,
and as the verb, considered apart from the adverb, expresses a positive affirmation,
there is perhaps no real necessity for a negative mode ; but it se'ems to us, that an
interrogative mode is desira.ble ; as it would prevent the extension of the indicativo
and potential modes, to expressions evidently beyond their legitimate limits.
As the term subjunctive implies something subjoined or added to the end, irrespec-
tive of the nature of the affirmation, the name is objectionablo. It would bo much
more appropriate, as Dr. Webstei* suggests, to call it the conditional mode. The
subjunctive mode, as its name imports, is limited to a, gubjnined member, though this
clause, by inversion, is some times placed first ; as, " If Eliza study, she will im*.
prove." Mr. Murray says, " Tho subjunctive mode represents a thing under a con-
dition, motive, wish, supposition, tto. ; as,'' I will respect him, though he chide me.'
' Were he good, he woulii be happy.' " We may infer from Mr. Murray's dehnition
that no verb is in tho subjunctive mode, unless preceded by some conjunction, ex-
pressed or understood ; this, however, is not the fact; for any word, whether verb or
urlverb, that limits th? affirmation so as to bring it within the limits of the defini-
tion, may cause the following verb to bo in the subjunctive mode ; xs," Suppose
we go.^' "Beforr the cock croiD, thou sUalt deny me thrice."
The verb in the present tense of this mode has two forms, called tho conjunctive
and tho indicative. 1 ho conjunctive exprcs,'?e3 ^it^«/"e contingencfi. &od should be
iimited in its use to what is called tho snbjunctive present; as, "He will not bo
pardoned unless he repent." This form of expression, says Mr. Butler, will be per-
fectly intelligible, if we suppose an ellipsis of an auxiliary ; thus, "Ho will not he
pardoned, unless he^hall irpenf." The eorjunctivej or limiting word, in such con-
structions, expresses the contingency, and the verb, the futurity. Those words
which express contingency, not only change the indicativo to the subjunctive, but
also the potential ; as, " If he should g-o.'' Some authors, however, in such expres-
sions, call the verb potential.
The indicative form expresses a present nnccrtainty ; as, "If he is at home, ho
will attend to the business."
Some authors of high standing think the Potential should be embraced in the
Indicative; since, in such expressions, as '• I can walk," the nbilitff to walk is posi-
tively affirmed. It must be borne in mind, however, that these authors regard the
uuxiliiiru'R, wnt/, can, mn.<i. etc., ns prinripal verbs, and the ecrbs which follow
tbiMii, in tho Inlinitivo mi^de without-the sign to. Wo do not see any p.nrticular ad*
vunlagi' in this change.
The Infinitive mode is the simple namo of the verb tukon abstractly, and, as it is
inc!ipublc of making any nfTirmation concerning the suhjecv, it can .scarcely be said
philosophically speaking, to have any mode at all. It partakes of t^e nature of»
a noun and a verb, ni; the participle docs of the adjective and verb ; hence its true
character Reems to be participial. Mr. tJreen, in speaking of if, says, " Thelnfini-
tivo is here placed among tlix* modes, because it has thus been ranked by common
consent, yet it is as really a participle as the forms which bear that name. It does
not assert action at all, and, therefore, r.nn not properly be said to have mode. It is
the simple name of the verb, taken alitiractly, and partakes of the properties of a
noun and verb, just as the participle p:irtakes of the properties of an adjective and
verb."
Some writ'TH speak of nn Infinilive in ing ; as, " Biding on horseback is a healthy
<.\erci«ie." Ri<iiru( is the name of soraelliing, and as such, partakes of the nature of
86 * ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
a noun ; but it expresses an action, and, as such, partakes of the nature of a rerb;
here we perceive that it precisely coincides with the definition given of the Infini-
tive. " To ride on horseback is a healthy exercise," is precisely equivalent to
" Riding on horseback is a healthy exercise." (See Whateley's Logic.)
. Dr. Webster has reduced the number of modes to four, viz. : the Infinitive, Indi-
cative, Imperative, and the Conditional (Subjunctive).
Mr. Butler suggests three, viz.: the Indicative, Imperative, and Infinitive.
Mr. Green would have four, viz. : the Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, and Im-
perative.
Perhaps it would not be the best to disturb the arrangement of modes, which has
generally been adopted by common consent; but, were we disposed to suggest at
all, we would suggest five, viz. : the Indicative, Conditional, Interrogative, Potential,
and Imperative.
•SECTION VI.
REMARKS ON THE TENSES.
With rospeot to the number of Tenses, or divisions of time, affected bj certain
modifications of the verb, a general harmony prevails among authors ; but, as re-
spects the names assigned to these Tenses, they are not so harmonious. We shall
hero set down a few of the most prominent without attempting to argue their appro-
priateness or inappropriateness, and leave such teachers as may think proper to
use thi* work to choose for themselves.
Dr. Webster denominates them Present, Perfect, Past, Prior-past, Future, and
Prior-future.
Goold Brown, Kirkham and others, call them Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Pluper-
fect, First future and Second future.
The Present, Present-perfect, the Past, Past-perfect, Future, and Future -perfect,
arc the designations given by Dr. Bullions and Mr. Butler.
After carefully reviewing the whole ground, we see no sufiBcient reason for change,
but adhere to those we have already given, viz. : Present, Past, Perfect, Pluperfect,
Future, and Future-perfect.
The uses of the Present tense are exhibited as follows:
1st. It is used to express what is taking place at the time it is mentioned, or what
actually exists now ; as, " I am." " He is writing while we are talking.''
2d. To express immutable truths, or what occurs habitually ; as, " God is all-
wise." " She takes snuflf."
3d. It is properly used in speaking of an author who is dead, but ■whose works
are still extant ; as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well."
4th By a figure called enallage. it is used for the past in animated narrative ; as,
" Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy with five thousand 'men."
5th. It is sometimes used to express a relative future event. This is the case when
it is connected with such expressions as when, as soon as, etc. ; as, " We shall bear
the news lohen the mail arrivfs " "As soon as daylight appears we shall leave."
, The tenses of the subjunctive and potential modes do not point out lime with so
much precision as the corresponding tenses of the indicative. Tbe peculiarity of
what is called the Elliptical Future or the conjunctive form of the subjunctive pre-
sent, consists in the non variation of the verb to agree with nominatives of diflferent
persons and numbers. This, however, is easily explained by supposing an ellipsis
of the auxiliary : lor the principal verb never varies when auxiliaries are used,
whether expresscol or obviously understood. Most verbs, in the other tenses of the
subjunctive, assilme the Fame form as the corresponding tenses of the indicative.
There is, however, one peculiarity in the subjunctive past, which demands special
notice. In such constructions, the verb assumes the plural form of the past tense,
irrespective of the number and person of its nominative, or the lime ol its event ;
consequently the form of the veri) gives no clue to its tense; " If I were he, I
would not act thus," i. e., I am not he. " If it were not raining, we would walk
out;" this expression is -equivalent to, "It is raining."
Dr. Webster calls this the hvpotherical tenso. Though the time indicated i i such
expres.«ior.s is evidently present, yet the mind in its percoptiun asiociaies with it
sometbina; that is past; e. g., '' If thingM had been so arranged that no rain whb
falling, we would walk out." Again, " If, in the order tf events, if it had so hap-
pened that / had been constituted he instead of /, the identical person / am, I
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 8Y
would not aot thus." It is this element of past tioae which enters iuto the mental
peroption of the case supposed, that can justify its being called at all a past tense.
The potential pluperfect, in point of time, corresponds nearly with the indicative"
past, as will be seen by comparing the following sentences : " He vunt yesterday."
" He ?rt/g-//< Aave gone yesterday." The t/me indicated by each rerb is identically
the same, though the nature of the affirmation differs widely. (See Formation of
Tenses.)
The ti-ne indicated by the present tense of the infinitive mode, is exceedingly
vague and uncertain. This is shown from the fact that it wrll accommodate itself
in construction with any tense of the Terb ; as. " I intend to write." " I intended
to write." " I shall intend to tcrite-" "I shall have intended to write."
It denotes an act or state unfinished at the time indicated by the principal verb
with which it is construed. Hence Mr. Butler calls the present infinitive the imper-
fect.
The perfect infinitive generally denotes an act or event, as completed in reference
to the verb with which it is construed ; as. " To this she is said to have replied."
" The laws of Draco are said to have been wriUen with human blood."
Verbs have throe forms in some tenses and two in all, viz., the common form, as,
"I write;" the intensive or emphatic form ; as, ''I do write ;'* and the progressive;
as, " I iiM zoritDt!;." The emphatic form is confined to ihe present and past tenses •
but the progressive form continues throughout the tenses, and is called by Dr.'
Webster the definite tense, whether present, past, or future. It is called progres-
sive, because it points out an event in progress at the time mentioned.
CHAPTER IX.
CONJUGATION.
§ 1, The Conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement
and combination of its parts, according to the Voices, Modes
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. ' '
A verb is irregular when the root is varied to form its past tense and per-
fect participle, or when it is monotonous, having all its parts alike • as Go
V}tnt, gone, Let, let, let. ' ' '
Rem. 1.— The root of the verb is its simplest fprm, and is found in the present in-
finitive without the sign ; as, Go, love, etc.
Rem. 2.— The principal parts of the verb, are the roo^, or present infinitive the
past indicative, &nd the perfect participle. • '
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.
Root or Present Infinitive, he, Past Indicative, was, Perfect
Participle, heen.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
1. lam. 1. We are.
2. Ihou art 2. You are.
3- "e IS. 3. They are.
88
ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
PAST TENSE.
Singular.
1. I was.
2. Thou wast.
3. He was.
1. I have been.
2. Thou hast been.
8. He has been.
1. I had been.
2. Thou hadst been.
3. He had been.
1. I shall or will be.
2. Thou shalt or wilt be.
3. He shall or will be.
Plural.
3. We were.
2. You were.
3. Thoy were.
PJERFECT TENSE.
1. We have l>cen.
2. You have been,
3. They have been,
PLUPBUiFECT TENSE.
1. We had been.
2. You had been.
3. They had been.
FUTURE TENSE.
1. We shall or will be.
2. You shall or will be.
3. They shall or will be.
1. I shall or will have been.
2. Thou shalt or wilt mive been.
3. He shall or will have been.
FUTURE -PERFECT TENSE.
1. We shall or will have been.
2. You shall or will have been.
3. They shall or will have been.
Rem. 1. — The form of tlio present indicative, as exhibited in the foregoinj;, is tho
form DOW used bj onr best writers and y^.CHkers ; but a different form formerly
prevailed, and is generally found in o^ur translation ot the Biliie; as, "There 6f
some standing here," etc. This form consists in trie use of be without any var^-
tion, except when it agrees with a nominative of the second perbon, siigular, sol-
elmn style; as,
Singular. Plural.
1. I be. I. We be.
2. Thou beest. 2. Ye or you be.
3. He be. 3. They be.
Rem. 2.— The subjunctive mode has two foriu^ in the present and two in the
past. The first form in the present is similar to the corresponding tenses of the
indicative, and expresses a ;?reae«< wnceriain/y ; as, "If I mn." The second form
expresses a future contingency ; ps, •' If I be," i. e , "If i shall be." This form
is sometimes called the elliptical future, or conjunctive form ; because the auxiliary
is not expressed. The first form of the ^as< tense corresponds in form wi'.h the
same tense in the indicative, and implies past vncerlainty. If I was, implies
doubt whether 7 Mjfls or «ot This may be called the common form. Tte second
form is called the hypothetical, and contaius a suppo.-ition ; as, •' // / jcere,"— this
suppo es / (lOT ;iof. (See Remarks on Tenses.) A lull display of these forms i»
exhibited in the following :
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singvlar.
1. 7/1 am.
2. //■ thou art or 3'ou are.
3. If he is.
Plurc^l.
1. If we are.
2. ff ye or you are.
3. If they are.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 09
ELLIPTICAL FUTURE.
Singular. Plural.
l.Ifl be. 1. // we be.
2. If thou be. 2. If ye or you be.
3. If he be. 3. If they be.
PAST TENSE OR CeMMON FORM.
\. If I was. 1. If we were,
2. If thou wast. 2. //' you were.
3. If he was. 3. ^f they were.
HTPOTHETICAL FORM.
1. Were I, or if I were. l.,Were we, or if we were.
2. Wert thou, or if thou wert. 2. .Were you, or */* you were.
3. Were he, or if he were. 3. Were they, or if they were.
PERFECT TENSE.
1. //" I have been. 1. If yve have been.
2. If thou hast been. 2. i/' you have been.
3.. Jf he has been. 3. If they Jiave been.
•
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
1. If I had been. 1. If \\e had been.
2. //" thou hadst been. 2. 7/" you had been.
3. If he had been. 3. If they had been.
FUTURE TENSE.
1. If I shall or will be. .1. Xf we shall or will be.
2. //' thou shalt or will be. 2. J/" you shall or will be.
3. If he shall or will be. 3. If they shall or will be.
FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE.
1. //■ I shall or will have been. 1. If we shall or will have been.
2. //■ thou shalt or wilt have been. 2. //' you shall or will have been.
3. If he shall or will have been. 3. If they shall or will have been.
POTENTIAL i^ODE.
* PRESENT TENSE.
Singular. ,' Plural.
1. T may,' can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be.
2. Thou niayst, canst or must be. 2. You may, can, or must be.
3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be.
PAST TENSE.
1. Might, could, would, or should 1. Might, could, would, or should
be. be.
2. Mi^htst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or should
shouldst bo. be.
3. Might, could, would, or should bo. 3. Might, could, would or should be.
90
ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
PERFECT TENSE.
Singutir.
1. May or must have been.
2. Mayest or must have been.
3. May or must have been.
Plural. •
1. May or must have been.
2. May or must have been.
3. May or must have been.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
%
1. Might, could, would, or should 1. Might, could, would, or should
have been. have been.
2. Mightst, couklst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or should
shouldst have been. have been.
3. Might, could, would, or should ?>. Might, could, would, or should
have been.
have been.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Singular.
riural.
2. Be, or be thou.
2. Be, or be yo or you.
INFINITIVE MODE.
PRESENT.
Perfect.
To be.
To have been.
PARTICIPLES.
IMPERFECT.
PERFECT. PLUPERFECT.
Being.
Been. Having been,
REGULAR VERBS.
§ 2. A verb is regular when the Past Tense and Perfect Far-
ticiple are formed by annexing d or ed to the root of the verb ;
if the root ends in e, d only is annexed ; as, Love, loved.
AVhen the root ends in any other letter except e, and forms its
Past Tense and Perfect Participle by annexing d only, the verb
is irregular ; as, Hear, heard, heard.
CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB TO LOVE, IN THE
• ACTIVE VOICE.
Present Infinitive.
Lore.
I love,
Thou lovest,
He loves.
Principal Parts.
Past Indicative.
Loved.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Perfect Participle.
Loved.
pluperfect.
I had loved.
Thou badst loved,
He had loved.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.
91
PAST.
I loved,
Thou lovedst,
He loved.
PERFECT.
I have loved,
Thou hast loved,
He has loved.
FUTURE.
I shall or will love,
Thou shalt or wilt love,
He shall or will love.
FUTURE PFUFECT.
I shall have loved,
Thou wilt have loved,
He will have loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
If I love,
Tf thou love or lovcst,
I he love or loves.
Tf I loved,
If thou lovedst.
If he loved.
PERFECT.
If I have loved.
If thou hast loved,
If he has loved.
PLUPERFECT.
If I had loved,
If thou hadst loved,
If he had loved.
FUTURE.
If I shall or will lore,
If thou shalt or wilt love,
If he shall or will love,
FCTUKE-PERFBCT.
If I shall have loved.
If thou ahalt have loved,
If he shall have loved.
POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT.
I may, can, or must love,
Thou mayst, canst, or must love,
He may, can, or mast love.
PAST.
T could love.
Thou couldst love.
He could love.
PERFECT.
I can have loved.
Thou canst have loved,
He can have loved.
PLUPEKFECT.
I could have loved.
Thou couldst have lov«d,
He could have loved.
PRESENT.
To love.
IMPERFECT.
Loving.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
^^-'Ove. Love thou.
INFINITIVE MODE.
PERFECT.
To have loved.
PARTICIPLES.
PERFECT.
Loved.
PLUPERIKCT.
Having loved.
THE PASSIVE VOICE.
§ 3. The Passive voice is formed by prefixing the variations
of the verb to he to the Perfect Participle of a Transitive verb.
92
ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND
throughout all the modes and tenses. No Intransitive verbs
can have voice ; since they can have no object. They gene-
rally have the Active form, though a few of them admit of the
Passive ; as, " He is gone," etc. As a verb in the plural num-
ber undergoes no variation, whatever may be the person of its
nominative, it is admitted both in this and the next preceding.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO LOVE, IN THE
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT.
I am loved,
Thou art 1
You are loved.
( Thou art loved,
8. He is loved.
1. I was loved,
f, 5 Thou wast loved,
\ You were loved,
8. He was loved.
1. I have been loved,
f. rrhou hast been loved,
■ ( You have been loved,
8. He has been loved*
PLUPERFECT,
1. I had been loved,
q j Thou hadst been loved,
f You had been loved,
3. He had been loved.
FUTURE.
1. I shall or will be loved,
2 S Thou shalt or wilt be loved,
\ You shall or will be loved,
8. He shall or will be loved.
FUTtTRE-PEBFECT.
1. I shall or will have been loved,
2 S Thou shalt or wilt have been loved,
' (You shall or will have been loved,
8. He shall or will have been loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
If I am loved,
\ If thou art loved,
] If you are loved,
•If he is loved.
Or thus.
If I be loved,
j If thou be loved,
) If you be loved,
If he be loved.
PERFECT.
1. If { have been loved,
2 3 If thou hast been loved,
\ If you have been loved,
3. If he has or hath been loved.
PLUPERFECT. ^
1. If I had been loved,
„ j If thou hadst been loved,
If you had been loved.
If he had been loved.
1. If I was loved,
^ \ If thou wast loved,
*"■ ) If you was or were loved,
3. If he was loved.
If I shall or will be loved,
j If thou shalt or wilt be loved,
(If you shall or will be loved.
If he shall or will be loved.
CONSTRUCTIVJt OKAMMAR. O'i
Or thus. FITIRE-PERFECT.
1. If I were loved, 1. If I shall have been loved,
2 ( If thou wert loved, o Hf thou shalt or wilt have been loved,
) If you were loved, *" \ If you shall have been loved,
8. If he were loved. 8. If ho shall have been loved.
^ POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT.
1. I may, can, or must bo loved,
o \ Thou inayst, canst, or must be loved,
/You may, can, or must be loved,
3. He may, can, or must be loved.
PAST.
1. T might, could, would, or sb«uld be loved,
_ J Thou uiightRt, couldst, wouldst, or should
I You might, could, would, or should be lov
3. He might, could, would, or should be loved
1. I may, can, or must have been loved,
cy jThou mayst, canst, or must have been loved,
/ You may, can, or must have been loved,
8. Ho may, can, or must have been loved.
PLUPEKFECT.
1. T might, could, would, or should have been loved,
2 f Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loved,
I You might, could, would, or sitould have been loved,
3. He might, could, would, or should have been loved,
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Be loved, or Be thou lov©d, or Do thou be loved.
INFINITIVE MODE.
PRESENT. PERFECT,
To bo loved. To have been loved,
PARTICIPLES.
IMPERFECT. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT.
Being loved. Loved, Having been loved.
10
94 ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND
INTERROGATIVE CONJUGATION.
Rem. — It has already been remarked that both the Indicative and Potential modes
are employed in asking questions.
PRESENT.
Singular, Plnral.
1. Love I ? 1. Love we ?
o ] Lovest thou ? 2. Love ye or you ?
■ J Love you ? 3. Love they ?
3. Loveth or loves he ?
The foregoing form is but little used. The following is the usual mode
of asking questions :
PRESENT.
Smgnlar. Plural.
1. Do I love ? 1. Do we love ?
„ f Dost thou love ? o jDoye love?
■• I Do you love ? ' /Do you love?
8. Does he love ? 3. Do they love ?
1. Did I love ? 1. Did we love ?
Q S Didst thou love ? c, S Did ye love ?
/ Did you love ? "" ) Did you love ?
8. Did he love ? 3. Did they love ?
1. Have I loved ? 1. Have we loved ?
jj \ Hast thou loved ? * ^ S Have ye loved ?
""' / Have you loved ? ' { Have you loved ?
3. Has or hath he loved ? 3. Have they loTed ?
•
PLUPERFECT.
1. Had T loved ? . 1. Had we loved ?
\ Hadst thou loved ? „ < Had ye loved ?
jH£
ad you loved ? ' } Had you loved ?
3. Had he loved ? 8. Had they loved ?
1. Shall I love ? 1. Shall we love ?
„ S Shalt or wilt thou love ? „ j Shall or will ye love ?
■ \ Shall or will you love ? ' / Shall or will you love ?
3. Shall or will he love ? 3. Shall or will they love ?
FUTUEEPEKFECT.
1. Shall I have loved ? 1. Shall we have loved ?
2 j Shalt 07- wilt thou have loved? o j Shall or will ye have loved ?
] Sliall <)?■ will you have loved ? ' ^ Shall or will you have loved ?
8. Shall or will he have loved ? 3. Shall or will they have bved ?
f 00N8TRUCT1VB ORAyMAK. 95
POTENTIAL MODE.
PKESENT TEN8E.
Singular. Plural
1. Can I love ? 1. Can we love ?
2, Canst thou love ? . 2. Can ye love J
8. Can he love ? 3. Can they love ?
All the other tenses of the Potential Mode, can be employed in asking
questions.
Rem. — A negative question is generally equivalent in 'v«rbal force to a^positive
agsertion ; as, "Can I not love ?"=r can lovo. "Shall not tho Judge of all the
oarth do right ?"=The Judge of all the earth shall do right.
CHAPTER X.
AUXILIARY VERB3.
Auxiliary verbs are monosyllabic words joined to other verbs, by whose
aid the principal verb is chiefly conjugated. They were once used as principal
verbs, and a few of thcui still retain that character; hence they may be
•divided into two classes, viz., such as are substantially auxiliary, and such
as are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes used as principal verbs.
Those which are substantially auxiliary, are may, can, munt, shall, might,
could, would, and should ; and those which are sometimes used as principal
verbs, are do, be, have, and will. Might, could, would, and should are gen-
erally regarded as the past tense of mat/, can, will, and shall. But as the
time, indicated bj'- these auxiliaries, is exceedingly indefinite, learners are
frequently misled by supposmg that those which are said to be in the pre-
sent tense, always point out present time, and those which are said to be
in the past tense, point ont piist lime. This, however, is far from being the
case ; for those in the present tense, as frequently point future time as pre-
sent, and those of the past tense point out present and future, as well as
p>ast time.
Thoujih these auxiliaries have lost Auch of their original import, yet
tbey all impart a sha3c of meaning to the verbal expression which demands
explanation. }Iay implies liberty or possibility ; as, " Yc 7nay have life."
• *' It way rain." ^l/u5« implies necemty ; as, '■'Vftmust cat and drink."
The original import of shall is that oi obligation or to be obliged; as,
" Thou shall not steal." Though shall has lost its original meaning in the
first person, it generally retains it in the second and third. In the first per-
son it i>\mp\y foretelli or predicts ; as, "I shall visit New York next sum-
mer; but, in the sfco/ir^ and third persons, it generally threatens ov com-
mands, and implies power in the speaker to compel obedience. Hence we
may perceive the ini|)ropricty of using shall in addressing the Supreme
Being, or in speaking of tilings or events over which the speaker has no
control ; as, "Thou shalt not suffer thy holy One to see corruption." "The
Lord shall fight for us." " Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all
the days of my life."
96 ANALYTICAL, ILLU^'RATIVE AND ,
•
Dr. Webster justly remarks that no human being has a right to use
words respecting God vfhich implj- authority or command. In the example
cited, 'icill is the proper auxiliary', expressing prediction.
This meaning of shall., however, must be understood with some limita-
tion ; for, when shall is not utter«<] emph;\tically, or when preceded by
such words as when., while., whoei^er, if] jn-ovided, etc., it has nothing of the
meaning of command or threatening ; as, " \V!ien you shall ha. <!& read these
papers, I will send you the others." "While he shall be present." "Who-
ever shall confess me before men, him will I confess before my Father
which is in Heaven."
Should almost invariably implies obligation, and is nearly synonymous
with ought ; as, " He should study," i. e., " He ought to study."
Dr. Webster's remarks on will are so excellent, that we take the liberty
t« quote them eptire. He says, " h'ill has a common origin with the Latin
volo. Hence the German wollen, the old English icoll^ &i\(l the present
contraction, 7Con''t, that is, rcollnol.
"This was originally a princip;*' verb, and is still used as such in our
language. It denotes the act of V.--. mind in determining, or as determina-
tion ; for he wills to go, and he will go, are radically of the same import.
When a man expres.ses his determination of mind, / will, we are accus-
tomed to consider the event, or act willed, as certain ; for we naturally
connect the power to act with the i'ltention ; hence we make the declaration
of will a ground of confidence, and hy an eas}^ association of ideas, wc con-
nect the declaration with an ohligat'on to carry the determination into ef-
fect. Hence will expressed by a person, came to denote & promise.
"But when a person declares the will of another, he is not bupposed to
possess the pOYrer to decide for him, and to carry his will into effect. He
merely offers an opinion, [^rounded ©n information or probable circumstan-
ce.*, which give him more or less confidence of an event depending on
another's wijl. ' Hence xcill, in the second and third persons, simply /br<j-
Iclls., or expresses an opinion of what will take place." See Webster's
Grammar, page 57.
Though wj7Z is one of the signs of the future tense, and, when joined
to another verb, it is generally regarded as being in the future tense, yet it
should be borne in mind, iliat it is not unfrequcntly used f)otentially, and,
as such, embraces a present deterr>;ination, which is, perhajs, to be com-
pleted m future time. Hence it involves the idea both of present and fu-
ture time ; and as the present resolution to carry out, and complete some
event in the future, may be predicated upon the existence of the same
thing in lime prior to the uttering if the resolution, it niav, by an associa-
tion of ideas, hIso involve the id^a of time past; as. " IVe %cill serve the
Lord," i. (?., "We have served the Lord, we are now serving the Lord, and
we will continue to serve the Lord. '
The principal uses. of do as an auxiliary, are to impart emphasis to decla-
rations, and to ash questions ; as, " I do say it." " lie did go." "Do you
mean what you sny ?" "Did he visit Rome ?"
It is sometimes used as a suVjstitute for some other verb, used in a pre-
ceding sentence ; as, " Henry loves his bock ; but John dbes not."
iJo, as a principal verb, is transitive, and signifies to act or to malce.
Hate is also a transitive verb, and signifies to possess. It is extensivejy
used as an auxiliary, and is frequently used to prevent the repetition of the
principal verb ; as, "Mar}' has not seen New York; but her sister has," i.
c , has seen New York,
Be is very extensively used, and, as it signifies existence, is called the
uhstantive verb.
CONSTRUOTIVE OaAMMAR. 97
Cmi implies power dV ability ; Ss, "He can go," i. e., He has the power
or ahility to go.
Eem. — No ausiliary verb has more than two tenses, viz., tlw Present and Past;
and they are briefly represented as follows :
PKESE.NT. PAST. PRESBNT. PAST. PRESEXT. PAST. PRESBSr. PAST
May, Might; Can, coul<ii; Will, would ^ Shall, should.
Be, Was; Do, did; Have, hat;
Vhen a verb is both a principal and an auxiliary, and is conjugated by means of
the ausiliary, the verb, in some of the tenses, will bo doubled, or the aame foroi
ased twica, as will bo seen in the following conjugation of Have.
CONJUGATION OF HAVE.
INDICATIVE ^rODE.
1%RESENT TENSE.
Singular. Plural.
I. I have. 1. We have.
^ i Thou hast, ^ f Ye have.
( You have. ■ I You have.
3. lie has or liath. 3. The}'^ have.
FAHT TENSE.
•
1. I had. 1. We had.
g f Thou hadsL „ f Y« hat!
] You had. ^- (Yon had.
He had. 8. Ihev had.
TEItFECT TENSE.
1. I liave had. 1. AVe have had,
g ( Thou ha.-?t had, „ f Ye havii had
"( You have had. ' \ You have had.
2>. lie has or hath had 3. The}' have had.
PLCPEKFECT TENSE.
1. I liad had. 1. We had had.
^ ( Thou hadst had. <, (Ye had had.
I You had had. "'' ] You had had.
S. He had had. S. They had had.
FLTUUE TENSE.
1. T shall or will have. 1. We shall or will have.
f> i Thou shalt or will have. f, | Ye shall or will have.
■"■ { You shall or will have. "' j You shall or will have.
3. lie .shall or wiJl have. .3. They shall or will have.
98' ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
FUTURE-PERFECT. •
Singxilar. Plural.
1. I shall have had. 1, We shall have had.
2 f Thou shalt ar wilt have had, 9 . ( Ye shall or will have had.
\ You shall cr will have had. *'■ \ You shall or will have had.
3. He shiall ov will have hai, 3. Thev shall or will have had.
g CIIAPTEE, XI.
FORMATION OF THE TENSES.
§ 1. The Present tense of the Infinitive is the root or sim-
plest form of the verb.
The Past tense of the Indicative and Subjunctive modes of regular verbs
is formed by anncaing d or ed to the root^ or by prefixing did, to the root ;
as, Love, loved, Walk, walked, or did walk; and of irregular verbs by va-
rying the root, or prelixiug did to it-, as, 1 nee, I naw, (ir did see.
Tht Perfect teniae is formed by prefixing liacc or its variations to i\\Q
Perfect Participle; as, "I have loved."
The Pluperfect is formed by pre'ixing had to the Perfect Participle ; as,
" I had loved."
The Future is formed by prefixing shall or will to the root of the verb ;
ts, ""I shall or will love."
The Future-Perfect is formed by prefixing shall or will have to the Per-
fect Participle ; as, " I shall have loved."
The Present tense of the Potential mode, as it is commonly called, is
formed bj prefixing may^ can, or must to the root of the verb ; as, "I may,
can, or must love."
The Past is formed by prefixing might, could, would, or ghould to the
roftt ; as, "I might, could, would, or should love."
The Perfect tense is foruied by prefixing may, can, or must have to the
Perfect Participle \ as, " I maj' have loved."
The Pluperfect is formed by prefixing might, could, imii,ld, or should
have to the Perfect Participle; as, "I might have loved."
The Present tense of the lufinilive is formed by prefixing to to the root
of the verb; as, *'To love."
The Perfect is formed by prefixing to hate to the Perfect Participle ; as,
" To have loved."
Kem. 1 —The time indicated by the tenses of the Potential mode is much moro
indefinite ihan that of the Indicative mode, or even the Subjunctive mode. That
called the Present tense is applicable to future as well as present time ; and what is
called the Past tense is applicable to present time as well as past.
Some authors, ihercfore, call these tenses Indefinite ; to this opinion the author
roadilv subscribes.
In this sentence, "John may go to morrow." to reijuire the lean er to parse the
verb may go in the Present tense, would contradict the eviiicnce of his senses, and
confuse his ideas of time as indicated hy the tenses of the verb.
It would, therefore, be much better to call both thes« tsc-es iNrEFiNiTJB.
CONSTRUCTIVE OUAMMAR,
99
Rem. 2. — Ths Indicative and Subjunctive modes have six tenses each ; the Po-
tential has four, or more properly speiikinfj, three, viz.: the Indefinite (Present aad
Past)' the Perfect and Pluperfect; the Imperative, one, viz: the Present; and the
Infinitive, tieo, viz. : Present ami Perfect.
Rem. '^. — Defeciive verbs generally have no modification of form to show their
tense ; some of them undei^o no variation to agree with nominatives of different
numbers and persons — such as Quoth. This verb is only used in the Present and
Past tenses, and only with nominatives of theirs/ and third persons, before which
it is .always construed ; as, '" Quoth I, quoth he," etc.*
Rem. 4.— Though ought was once used as the Past tense of owe, it is not so em-
ployed now. As it has no variation to e.xpress tense, its tense ean only be inferred
from ihe tense of the Infinitive with which it is invariably construed. If ought is
followed by the Present Infinitive, it is generally gaid to be in me Present tense ;
as, "These things ought not so to be." But, if it is connected with the Perfect In-
finitive, it is said to be in the Past tense; as, "This ought yo to have done."
CHAPTER XII.
IRREGULAR VERBIS.
§ 1. Irregular verbs may be divided into four classes :
1st, Such as have a different form in each of their parts ; as, go, went,
gone ; write, wroto, written.
2(1. Such verbs as have the Past tense and Perfect Participle alike, but
both differ from the root ; as, teach, taught, taught; fight, fought, fought.
3d. Are such verbs as have the Present tense and Perfect Participle
alike, but both have a form diil'erent from the Past tense ; as, run, ran, run.
4th. Are monotonous, having the same form in all their parts; as, let,,
let, lut ; set, set, set.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
TRESENT.
PAST.
Abide
aJjodo
Am
was
Awake
awoke, Rf
Arise
arose
Bear (to bring forth)
bore
Bear (to carry)
bore
Beat"
beat
Become
became
Begin
began
Bend
bent, R
Bereave
bereft, R
Beseech
besought
Bid
,
bid, bado
Bind
bound
Bite
bit
PERFECr-PAETICPLE.
abode
been
awaked
arisen
born
borne
beaten, beat
become
begun
bent
bereft, R
besought
bidden, bid
bound
bitten, bit
•It is only need in ludicrous ptylc.
+Tho8o verbs who»e Past tense and Perfect Participle are followed by R, ha\x» al^o a r^-g-
jxlar farm ; ae, Awa;kb or awajw.
100
PRESEVi:
Bleed
Blow
Break
Breed
Bring.
Build
Burn-
Burst
Buy
Cast
Catch'
Chide
Chooge
Cleave (tO' adhere)
Cleave (to split)
Cling
Clothe-
Come
Cost
Creep
Crow-
Cut
Dare
Deal
Dig
Do
Draw
Dreans
Drink
Drive
Dwell
Eat
Engrave
Fall
Feed
Feel
Fight
Find
Flee
Fling
Fly
Forsake
Freeze
Freight
Get
Gild
Gird
Give
Go
Grave
Grind
Grow
.ilNALmCAL, ItLUSTRAXrVI AXD
PERFECT-PA KTICIPLE.
bled
bled
blew
blown
broke
brpken '
bred
bred
brought
brought
built, R
built
burnt, R
burnt, R
burst
burst
bought
bought,
cast
cast
caught, E
caught, R
chid
chidden, chid
chose
chosen
cleaved
cleaved
clove, cl'efl
cloven
clung
clung
clud, R
clad, R
came
come
cost
cost
crept
crept
crew, R
crowed
cut
cut
durst
dared
dealt, R
dealt, R
dug, R
dug, R
did
done
drew
drawn
dreamt, R
dreamt, R
drank
drunk, drank
drove
driven
dwelt
dwelt
ate, eat
eaten, eat*
engraved
engraven, engraved
foil
fallen
fed
fed
felt
felt
fought
fought
found
found
fled
fled
flung
flung
flew
flown
forsook
forsaken
froze
frozen
freighted
fraught, R
got
got, gotten
gilt, R
.gilt, R
girt, R
girt, R
gave
given
went
gone
graved
graven, R
ground
ground
grew
grown
*Eat, in the patt SiBifta sara perfect participle, sliotild' be pronouncsd et.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR.
lUl
PRESENT.
Hang*
Have
Hear
Heave
How
Hide
Hit
Hold
Hurt
Keep
Kneel
Knit
Know
Latle
Lay
Lead
Leave
Lend
Let
Lie (to recline)
Light
Load
Lose
Make
Mean
Meet
Mow
Pay
Pen (to enclose)
Put
Quit
Read
Rend
Rid
Ride
Ring
Rise
Rive
Run
Saw
Say
See
Seek
Seethe
Sell
Send
Set
Sit
Shake
Shape
Shave
.Shear
PAST.
PIRFECT PARTICIPLE.
hung
hung
had
had.
heard
heard
hove, R
hovcn, R
hewed
hewn
hid
hidden, hid
hit
hit
held
held
hurt
hurt
kept
kept
knelt, R
knelt, R
knit, R
knit, R
knew
Icnowa
laded
laden
laid
laid
led
led
left
Jeit
lent
lent
let
let
lay
lain
lit, R
lit, R
loaded
laden, R
lost
lost
made
made
meant
meant
met
met
mowed
mown
paid
paid
pent, R
pent, R
put
put
quit, R
quit. R
read ,
read
rent
rent
rid
rid
rode
riddoQ
rang, rung
rung
rosej
risen
rived
riven
ran
run
sawed
sawn, R
said
said
saw
seen
sought,
soug,ht
sod, R
sodden
sold
sold
sent
sent
set
set
sat
sat
shook
shaken
shaped
shapen, R
shaved
shaven, R
sheared
shorn, R
* Hang, n the sense of to execute, is regular.
11
102
ANALYTICAL ILLUSTRATIVE AND
PRESENT.
Shed
Shine
Shoe
Shoot
Show-
Shred
Shrink
Shut
Sing
Sink
Slay
Sleep
Slide
Sling
Slink
Slit
Smite
Sow (to scatter)
Speak
Speed
Spell
Spend
Spill
Spin
Spit
Spread
Spring
Stand
Steal
Stick
String
Stink
Stride
Strike
Strive
Strew or strew,
Swear
Sweat
Sweep
Swell I
Swim
Swing
Take
Teach
Tear
Tell
Think
Thrive
Thrust
Tread
Wax
Wear
Weave
Weep
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
shed
shed
shone
shone
shod
shod
shot
shot
showed
shone
shred
shred *
shrank, shrunk
shrunk
shut
shut
iSang, sung
sank, sunk
sung
sunk
■lew-
slain
slept
slid
slept
f-liilden, slid
slung
slunk
slung
slunk
slit
slit, R
smot^
smitten
sowed
sown, R
spoke
sped
spelt, R
spoken
sped
spelt, R
spent
spilt, R '
spent
spilt, R
spun
spun
spit
spr«ad
spit
spread
sprang, sprung
stood
sprung
stood
stole
stolen
stuck
stuck
strung
strung
stunk
stunk
strode, strid
stridden
struck
struck, stricken
strove
striven
strowed or strewed,
strown or strewn
swore
sworn
swe«t
sweat
swept
swelled
swept
swollen, R
swam, swum
swum
swung
swung
took
taken
taught
taught
tore
torn
told
told
thought
thought
throve
thriven
thrust
thrust
trod
trodden, trod
waxed
waxen, R
wore
worn
wove
woven
wept
wept
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 1 '^•'^
TRKSENT. TAST. PEKFBCT PARTICiriE.
Wet ^^ et, R \vct, R ^
Whet whet, R '"het, R
Win won won
Wind wound wound
Work wrought, R wrought, R
Wring wruns wrung I
Write wrote written
Rex. 2— As the reader of the BiMe %vill frequently meet with forms of the yvrb
which are now obsolete, consequently they do not :ipi>ear in the List, a few of th.se
are given in the following :
PRESENT.
PASX. rEUFKCT PAUTICII'LE.
Bear (to carry) hare ' J^'Tno
Bear (to bring forth) bar>i born
Xrivo drave driven
Oot P"* gotten
Skew «/"-"'^'^ *^^f"
Bpea-k f^pake spoken
Bem.3.— Those imrAed ia italics are oboolete.
CHATTER XIII.
GENERAL KE 51 ARKS ON THE VERB.
As some verbs which have the same form have a different siguiacation, care must
he taken not to confound them together. When ret'irn moans to come back, it is
iDtrnnfitivo. but, when it means to rcjilare. it is Transitive ; as, " When cm jou
re<?/rrt the money ?" i. c, replace it. "When will tho^o ladies return?" (come
back). "Hate I rent niv hopes " (Transitive). " W« cesiin sleep " (Iiitran^'tiv-e )
Some Intransitive verbs become Transitive by taking an object after tiicm of
kindred signification; as, " Ilor V\y>s hliisk deeper swoeta." '■ lie sleeps tho d' ep
of death."'' '• Let me die the death of the righteous.
The learner should bear in mind that ho may learn to know the tense of t.ia
verb by the sign and formation of the tenses, without knowing how to .apply tlie
tense properly in speaking and writing : hence the necessity of studying thorough-
ly the philosophy of the tenses, as exhibited ia tha Diagram of Time and it^/'X-
planation. The following exercises contain a complete variety of the Voice--,
Modes, and Tensas. Each verb should be carefully parsed, and comparod with lUu
diagrams of modes and tenses, as exhibited in the following model :
3{od,i. " C;«sar was .<;lain by Brutus." Wds slain is ati irreg;iil;iv,
transitiye verb, passive voice, indicative mode, past tcn.se, and is of thf^thir,/.
person, singular number, agreeing with its nominative C;osiir, according to
Rule 6.
Question.'^.— Why i.s was slain <a verb? Bocnuse it asserts or atfiriiis.—
Why is it irregular V liocausc it forms its past tense and perfect participle
by varying the root— Slay, slew, slain. AVhy is it transitive V Because it
has power to affect an oUjecit. Why. in tiie passive voice? Because it>
nomuiaiive receives the action. Who performed it? Brutus. NVhy in the
indicstivetnode? Because it affirms without limitation. What figuro in
the diagram illustrate^ it? Figure 1. How docs it illustrate it ? .\,s the
iigure is in juxta position with that part of the diag»:im which represents
the subject, it showb that wh.itever is indicdtively afiarmed, belongai
104 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATITE AND
absolutely to the subject. Why in the past tense? Because the period
of time in which the event occurred, is wholly past. What figure in the
diagram illustrates it? Figure 2. How ? As the figure has no connection
with that part of the diagram which ropresents present tirae, it shows that
the period of time in which the event occurred is wholly past. Why of
the third person, singular ? B«cause its nominative is.
Exercises.
John will go, if Henry will go with him. The sun shines to-day, though
it may be cloudy tomorrow. Dawn on our darkness, and lend us thine
aid. The gospel ini^it be preached among all nations. The work can be
done. The sun has set behind tho western hills. When will day dawn on
iLi ui'^ht of the grave? The evil that men do, lives after them ; but the
gcod is oft interred with their bones. I may have been mistaken. Thou
h'/'^i betrayed thy friend, and ruined thyself This ought ye to have done,
and not to leave the other undone. He will have visited me three times, if
h.' come next week. If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died.
He had written his letter before the mail arrived. Let us go hence. Take
heed how ye hear. He might have returned sooner. He could do the
work better. Hear; for I will speak of excellent things.
Lord, thou wilt hear me when I pray .
I am forever thine ;
I fear before thee all the day,
Nor would I dare to sin.
From your fair cheek, the rose may fade
By sickness in a day ;
Your beauty, in the dust, be laid,
Yet Marjr's part will stay.
CHAPTER XIV.
PARTICIPLES.
Participles from the Latin particijpium^ a partaker, is a
word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of the
verh^ and also of the adjective ; but depends upon a noun or
pronoun in construction.
Verbs have three Participles— the Imperfect^ the Perfect, and the Plw
perfect.
The Imperfect participle is formed by annexing ing to the first form or
root of the verb ; rs, Talk, talking.
This participle is called Imp«rfect, because it denotes an unfinished state
t)f the action or verbal denotement.
The Perfect participle is formed by annexing d or ed to the Present tene;*
of regular verbs ; as, Smile, smiled.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 106
It is; called Perfect hecAxiae it denotes the finished state of the action or
verbal denotement .
The Pluper/est participle is formed by prefixmg havi7i(7 to the perfect
participle ; as, " Raving written the letter, he mailed it." _
It is called PZuperfeci because it implies more than tlio Pcrloct. Tins
parlicipl* mot only denotes the finished state of the action, !)ut also as
having; been completed before the time indicated by the principal verb of
the sentence with which it is associated.
AuUiors are not agreed with regard to the names assigned to these parti-
ciples. They have been named as follows:— The Present or Imucrlcct, the
Perfect, and Compound.— JTirA'/iaw. The Present, Perfct, and 0 ^mpound-
VQricct.—Ingersoll, Bullions, and others. The Present, Past, and Perfect—
Greene. The Imperfect Perfect and Pluperfect— G^oo/'*^ JJroicn.
We have adopted the last mentioned, for the following reason :— Partici-
ples do n»t, in our judgment, derive their names from tlie time which they
indicate, but from the state of the action which they express.
Then, when a Participle denotes the unfinished state of the action or ver-
bal denotement it may, with propriety, be called Lnper/ect; it may be
called Perfect yfhen it expresses the finished state of the verbal denotctnent ;
and, with equal propriety, it may be denominated Pluperfect, when it im-
plies action completed previous to the time indicated by the verb with
which it is associated. . . .« .
Participles, like verbs, have an actke »nd pastvoe signification ; as, Hav-
in<i written, a letter- active; a letter having been wrt«en- —j-assive.
Participles have two forms— 6'im;)?# and Compound. A Participle is
simple when it consists of a single word ; as. Loving. It is eompourid when
it consists of more words than one ; as. Being loved, hnoina been loved.
The Imperfect and Pluperfect participles can govern an objective case ;
but the Perfect participle has no governing power.
A Participle is sctaetimes used without the word on whi'h it depends, in
construction, being expressed; as, ''Considering their means, they have
accomplished much," Some authors, in constructions like the above, re-
gard the ParticipU as rt7iowa?o?is, having no word upon which it can de-
pend ; but Dr. Webster, in such constructions, supposes that the Participle
refers to we understood ; as, *' We considering their means,"' etc.
Rem. 1.— As participles kave no distinct etymological character, they m»y be em-
ployed as various parts of speech, retaining in all, however, a shade of their parti-
cipial meaning. They may be employed as iiewn, sdjectiveg, ndvrrbs, prepositions,
and conjunctions; as exhibited in the following examples. In th» tirst, it is used as
a noun; in the second, as an adjective; in the third and fourth, as n preposition ; in
the fifth and sixth, as adverbs ; and in the seventh, as a coKJKUctwv. ^^
pi^gl—" Tho Ittridng of the temple was oontra<ry to the orderji o^ Titus.
i^eeond.—-' I see a. flying cloud."
Third—" I speak concerning Chrict and the Churchy
Fourth. — "Nothing was said teuchi ng ih&t question.
JFty^A.— "He C8.ii.e running.
Sixth— " It [s j:asslng stTAUgf." ,,, c. • ■
Seventh.—" Seeing we must part, lot us do it peaeeably.' Seeing i-? used symny
mously with since. See Clark's New Grammar.
Model. "We heard the wind roaring." RoAmsr, is an imperfect part'
<:iple, derived from the verb to roar, and refers to the noun wiiid, accorc
ing to Rule 18.
Questions. — Why is roaring a participle ? Because it partakes of tb
nature of the verb and also of the adjective ; but it depends upon a not-
in construction. Why imperfcri? Because it denotes an unliuished sta
<d the action or verbal denotement
106 ahalttical, illustrative aj?d
Exercise?.
The stranger saw the desert thistle, bending there its lonely head. That
house, erected on yonder rising ground, drew me from the road. Man be-
holds the twinkling stars, adorning night's blue arch. God, having finished
all his works, rested on the seventh day. Mary, you have accomplished
the task assigned you by your tutoress. The object of the campaign being
accomplished, the army went into winter quarters. A certain man came
running to Jesus. Considering their difficulties, they have done well. He
inquired concerning my health. In the beginning God created the heavens
and the earth. Bonaparte having lost the battle of Waterloo, fled to Paris.
Sweet fields beyond the swelling flood,
Stand dressed in living green.
I'll sing the song which doth belong
To all the human race.
Concerning death, which steals the breath,
And blasts the comely face.
CHAPTER XV.
PIIONOUNS OR SUBSTITUTES.
§ 1. Pronoun, from the Latin j^/o, for, and nomen, a name, is
a ^ord used /or or instead of a noun or name.
Pronouns are not only used to represent nouns, but sentences or parts
of sentences.
Pronouns are divided into two sorts — Personal and Relative.
Personal pronouns are distinguished from the Relative by having a form
to show their own person.
?^' There are five personal pronouns — /, Thou or Fo», He, She, and It,
with their plurals— ire, F*?, or You, The;/. As pronouns represent nouns,
they must, of course, possess the same properties which belong to nouns,
viz., Gender, Number, Person, and Case.
Pronouns of the first and second persons are not varied to express gen-
der ; for as the first person represents the speaker, and the second the per-
son spoken to, they are supposed to be present, and consequently their
gender known; but as the third person may be absent or unknown to the
person or persons addressed, it is varied to express gender. He is mascu-
line, She is feminine, It is neuter.
Person is that property of the noun or pronoun, which shows the rela-
tion of the speaker to the subject.
When the speaker represents the subject, it is the first person ; as T, We.
When the speaker addresses the subject, it is of the second person ; as.
Thou, Ye.
And when the speaker speaks of or about the subject, it is of the third
person ; as, He, She, It, They.
Most of the pronouns assume difierent forms in diflferent cases.
CONSTRUCTIVB GRAM-MAR.
"107
This variation of form to express case, is called Declension.
Declension, from the Latin de, from, and cUno, to bend, shows that the
possessive and objective cases have dilferent forms from the nominative, as
exhibited in the following table : »
FIRST PERSON.
Singular.
Plural.
Kom. I,
/'rts.s. my or mine,
01 j. me.
We,
our,
us.
SECOND PERSON.
Nom. Thou,
Posh, thy or
Ohj. thee.
thine,
THIRD PERSON MASCULINE.
Ye or you,
your,
you.
Nom. He,
Pass, his,
Ohj. him.
THIRD PERSON FEMINIKE.
They,
their,
them.
Nom. She,
Poi<s. her,
Ohj her.
TrilRD PERSON NEUTER.
They,
their,
them.
Nom. It, •
Poss. its,
Ohj. it.
They,
their,
tliem.
The nature of declension will
be more clearl}- undeistood by a
close inspection of Diagiam No. 2.
As English nouns have but few
inflections, we have chosen a Latin
noun for this purpose, which, like
other Latin nouns, consists of two
parts — the Root and Ter/nination.
The root of the Latin noun
Mma is written at the base of the
perpendicular line which repre-
sents the nominative case, and the
termination at its top. Most of
the other five cases have a loi-m,
and all a meaning different from
the nominative, and arc, therefore,
called oblique cases. The termi-
nations of these cases are written
at the end of lines forinins; nnp^les with the pendicular. By annexing
these terminations to the root lespectivcly each case is formed. Thus,
108 ANALTTIOAL, ILLUS'HIATIVB AN©
genitive, musae, of amuse; dative, musse, to a muse; accusative, musam,
a muse ; vocative, mnsa, 0 muse! and ablative, muaa, with a muse, etc
The declension of English nouns and pronouns may be illustrated by
writing consecutively the nominative cases of each person and number on
the perpendicular line, and the two other cases at the terminations of lines
forming angles with the perpendicular, as exhibited in the diagram,
Rkm. 1. — The words Owrs, Yours, Hers, Theirs, etc., are generally treafeJ by
Grammarians as pronouns in the posse.'^sive case; but Dr. Webster Ims clearly
demonstrated that they are substitutes used in the nominative and ohjeotive eases.
In the sentence, " My sword and yovrs are kin," yours is evidently a substitute for
your sword, and in the nominative case, connected to sword by ajid.
It is generally said, in such constructions, that yours is in the pcsfefsive case,
governed by a noun understood ; but if the noun is really understood, it may be
Fuppliod ; and what sort of sense would yours sword make ?— evidently bad sense, if
not nonsense. See D>: Webster's Improved Grammar of the English Language.
Rbk. 2. — Self is not unfrequently annexed to the personal pronouns to render
them emphatic, and to point out the speaker as the real agent of the act, in contra-
distinction to its having been done by proxy ; as, "The sun himself must die." " I
did it myself."
In such-eases they are generally called compound personal pronouns, and are
used in the nominative and objective cases ; but never in the possessive j but they
may be parsed simply as personal pronouns.
Rem. 3. — It is frequently used without any definite antecedent, standing merely
for a state of things ; as, " It is cold," " It rains, " It freezes," etc. " It, also ad-
mits of the predication of a noun or pronoun of any gender, person, or number ;
as, " It is the Lord," " It is she," " It is they," " It is he," " It is I," " It is thou."
Model 1st. John studies, and he will improve. Re is a personal pronoun,
masculine gender, third person, singular number, agreeing with its ante-
cedent John, according to Rule 12, and nominative case to the verb tcill
imjjrovc, according to Rule 1.
QucstioTis. — Why is Re a pronoun? Because it represents or stands for
a noun. Why personal? Because it has a form to show its own person.
Why of the masculine gender, third person, singular ? Because its antece-
dent t/bAn. is. Wky nominative case? Because it is the subject of the
verb in its own clause.
EXBKCISES.
I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. We improve
ourselves by close application. Young ladies, you study your lessons care-
fully. If I go away, I will come again, and receive you to myself.
If any man serve me, him will my Father honor. Horace, thou learnest
many lessons. John lost his knife, and Henry found it. He did it him-
self. It is very warm. It snows very fast. It is I; be not afraid. It
was the women who first visited the sepulchre. It was Peter who first
preached the gospel to the Gentiles. Day was descending in the west
when I brought his arms to Crothar ; the aged hero felt them with his
bands ; joy brightened his thoughts.
Model 2d. " Yours of the fifth instant has come to hand." Yours is a
substitute for your letter, and in the nominative case to ?ias come, accord-
ing to Rule 1.
AHALTTICAL, ILLUSTItATIVli AND 109
Exercises.
Julia injured her book, and soiled mine ; hers is better than mine. We
leave your forests of besists for ours of men. Tho Lord knows them that
are his. Your letter of the 20Ui of this month, like the rest of yours, tells
me with so much more wit, sense, and kindness, than mine can express.
There everlastinfi; spring abides,
And never-with'ring flowers ;
Death, like a narrow sea, divides
This Heavenly land from ours.
CHAPTER XVI.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
§ 1. Relative Pronouns are such as relate to some word or
phrase going before, called the antecedent.
They arc irho^ which and that, and their compounds, such as whichever,
whoever, whatever, etc.
Who and its compounds are ajjplied to persons only^ lohich to brutes
and things, and that to both persons and things.
W ho and its compounds are declinable; as,
Noni. Who, Poss. Whose, Ohj. Whom.
Which and that are indeclinable.
When the antecedent is qualified by an adjective in th« auperhitife de-
gree, or the specifying adjective same, euphony requires that that should be
used in preference to who or lohich ; as, "' J<ih was the most patient man
that we read of. He is the same man that 1 saw before.
That should bo u.sed in preference to tcho or which, when the antecedent
consists of per.sons and brutes; as, "The men and horses that were drowned,
have been found."
Also, to prevent monotony, when who or which has been used in a pre-
ceding clause ; as, " The wheel killed another man, who is the sixth that
has lost his life by lliis means."
What is generally parsed as a compound relative pronoun, including
both the antecedent and relative ; as, " I like toliat jou dislike ; but if we
supply the ellipsis, lohat is simply ^'specifying adjective ; as, "I like what
thing it is which you dislike."
Those pronouns which arc used in asking questions, are eonomllv mlh^r]
Interrogative Pronouns OT i-clative pronouns of the ini
They are who, which, and what. Of these, who only, proi.
an interrogative pronoun. Which and y/i/uii belong to some noun ex]!
or understood, and are consequently spe^itying adjectives; as, " Wh<i:
have you ♦" " ^hich do you see ?"— i. e., which person or thing do you
see ?"
llO ANALTTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
As relative pronouns hare no form to indicate their gender, person, and
number, you must refer to their antecedents, in order to know these pro-
perties.
The gender, pei'son and number of the Interrogative can not be known,
unless its subsequent is expressed or the answer given ; but when the sub-
sequent is known, the gender, person and number of the interrogative can
be determined. The subsequent is also said to agree in case with its inter-
rogative. (See Construction of Sentences.)
Rem. 1. — Though whichever and whatever are generally called compound relative
pronouns, they iiro nothing more than specifying adjectives, or to say ihe most,
substitutes. (See Part I., Chapter II., Model ftth.)
Rkm. 2. — That is a relative pronoun when which, or who can bo substituted for it;
a3, " ho that acts wisely, deserves praise," that is, he who acts wisely, etc. " This
is the tree that produces no fruit," that is, " This is the tree lohich produces," etc.
Rem. 3. — When the antecedent is obvious, it is frequently omitted; as, " Whom
man forsakes, thou wilt not leave," that is, lam. whom man for.sakcs, etc. " Who
steals my purse, steals trash," that is, he who steals my purse, etc.
Rem. 4. — What is.£ometimes used as an interjection ; as, " What ! is thy servant
a do£?"
Rem. 5. — As personal pronouns frequently refer to antecedents, and as relative
pronouns connect as well as refer to antecedents, Mr. Butler very justly, as wo
think, suggests the name connective pronouv iis preferable to relative.
Rem. 6. — When tbe relative refers to antecedents which are collective nouns,
which or that should be used and not who ; as, " The Legislature that met."
Model. " The boy whom I instruct, learns well." Whom is a relative
pronoun, masculine gender, third person, Angular, agreeing with its ante-
cedent hoy^ according to Rule 12, and in the the objective case, governed
by instruct^ according to Rule 20.
Questions. — Why is whom a pronoun ? Because it stands for or repre-
sents a noun. Why a relative ? Because it not only refers to an antece-
dent, but has no form to show its person.
Exercises.
She who acts prudently, is worthy of praise. The young ladies whom I
instruct, improve very fast. Julius C^sar who had conquered Gaul, was
assassinated by Brutus. This is the tree which produces no fruit. They
that sow in tears, shall reap in joy. He took what he could find. Whom
shall we send ? Me. What have I to do with thee ? Let her take what-
ever pattern suits her best. This is the dog that bit the cat that caught
the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. Who wor-
ships God, shall find him.
Let him to whom we now belong,
His sovereign right assert.
And take up every thankful song,
And every loving heart
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. Ill
CHAPTER XVII.
THE ARTICLE.
§ 1. Article, from the Latin artieulus, a j'oint or small part,
is a word prefixed to nouns to limit the extent of their signifi-
cation ; thu^!, " Man is sinful." In this example man is used
in a general sense,* and embraces in the extent of its meaning
*^ all man Jet fid ;" but in the sentence, "Thou art the man,"
the meaning of man is circumscribed^or limited bj the to a par-
ticular man.
There aive two articles — A or An and The.
The is called the definite article. .1 or an is called the indefinite article.
The definite article limits the nouns to a particular object or collection of
objects ; as, " The man." " The woman."
The indejlnife article limits nouns in respect to number ; it belongs to
nouns in the sinc;ular number.
Euphony requires that an should be used before-words commencing with
a voteel sound, and also before words commencing with h, when the accent
is on the second syllable ; as, " yl» oW tale," '■'^ An historic account;" and
that a should be used before words commencing with a consonant sound ;
as, '■'A book."
The definite article sometimes belongs to adverbs in the coinparatice or
tuperlative degree; as, "The more I examine it, the better I like it." "I
like this the least of all."
The indefinite article is sometimes construed with nouns in the ])lural
number, when such adjectives as dozen, hundred, thousand, etc., intervene
between it and the noun ; as, " A dozen men."
When an article and adjective belong to the same noun, the article is
generally construed before the a(/;(.c/i're; as, "yl <70(9J man ;" but the in-
definite article is sometimes construed between the adjective many, and the
noun to which it belongs ; as,
" Full many a flower is born to blush unseen."
The article a, in current discourse, should be pronounced like a in far,
unless when emphatic.
When the definite article precedes a word commencing with a voirel
sound, e should have the long sound ; but when it precedes a word coni-
moncing with a consonant sound, e should have the short sound ; as, " J' he
art.t and the sciences" — unless emphatic.
When a and the are emphatic, the vowels are both long; as, " I did not
say a man but the man.
Rf.m. 1.— Whon //(p liiuits iin adverb or adjpctive ; a.", " I love her the more,"
" Alexander the Great," " the deeper the woll, the colder tho water," gome authois
pnrse the article the as an adverb, otherB call both word-s a compound adverb or ad-
jective, na tho case may be; either <if thes« ways may do; but wo j-rcfcr ealling
both words a complex adjective or adverb."
Rem. 2. — In such constructions as the above, in which the indefinite article a is
construed with a plural noun ; as, ''A dozen men," "A thousand yoariJ," sotno sup-
pose that there i%an ellipsis of a prepotifion before such nouns, and that the article
belongs to the xfords dozen,' I hnu sand, \isod a^ nouns ; iis. " A dozen uf nii'U," "A
thousand of years." When such woids arc plurali/.ed, tho propusitioii ih o-Tiiressod ;
11'2 ANALYTICAL, (fONSTRUCTIVE AND
as, " Thousands of years," etc. This solution appears to be cori>ect : ypt vre soe no
tjooi reason why such expressions as a r^ozon, a hundred, a thousand, etc., should
;K/f in most cases be parsed -is complex ■idjeriircs or us a is a contraction of an, tUo
AD'j,lo-Saxon ant- one, it may be yarstjii |js a stcondary adjective.
Hbm. Z.—A is fcomotimes used ju a priipositioaal sense, and with the meaning of
by . at, to, on, etc. ; '• a*, *' He gets twenty dollars a month," thatjis, by the month.
'* Wo go a fishing," that is, at or to fishirfg. " He went ashore," that is, at or on
shore*^"
The'ajticle is perhaps too simple as an article to need a Modal; but we will pro-
aent one uied in a more complex sense.
Model. "I like this the least of all." The least is a complex adverb, and
modifies like, according to Rule 25.
JSXERCISES.
A great man is fallen in Israel. Alexander the Great, who conquered
the world, was conquered by his own passions. A good man is a great
man. A hundred loaves are not sufficient. A thousand stars can be seen
by the naked e3'e. The winds drove the vessel ashore. They gave him
five hundred dollars a year. Simon Peter said, we go a fishing. The pas-
sions should be governed. Eparainondas was the greatest of the Theban
generals. '
CHAPTER XVIII.
ADJECTIVES OR ATTRIBUTES.
§ 1. Adjective, from the Latin adjeetivus — from ad, to, and
jaeio, to ^ow, is a word joined to a noun or pronoun to ex-
press its quality or limit its meaning; as, "A good man."
''That man."
Adjectives may be divided into two classes, viz. — Qualifying and Speci-
fying.
Qtialifying adjectives or attributes express some quality of the noun or
pronoun to which they belong.
As quality may be possessed in different degrees, qualifying adjectives
are varied to express the degrees of quality, either possessed by the same
object at different times, or by different objects, at the same time, possessing
different degrees of the same quality ; as, '"John is talld^ than he was last
year." " Henry is wiser than James."
Most adjectives admit of three degrees of comparison — the Positive, Com-
paratire, and the Superlative.
The Posit ire degree expresses an imlirect comparison, as when we say
that '• Thomas is tall," we can only determine or know that Thomas is tall
by comparing him with the general height of men, and finding that he
ext'sos that standard.
The Comjjarative degree expresses a direct comparison between two ob-
jects; as, " EJiza is the taller of the two."
T ;e Superlative degree expresses a direct comparison of several objects ;
as, "That is the ("^/^^esi tree in the f^jrest."
COlfSTRUOTITfi aRik.MMA.R.
113
Adjectives expressive of color or t^ute, generally hare four degrees of
comparison, viz. — tiie Imperfect, the Pofiitioe, the Gomparative, and the
Superlative ; us, Brownish, irown, browner, brownest. Sweetish, sweet, sweet-
er, Hwectt'st.
The Imperfect degree expresses a slij;ht dep;ree of quality inferior to tho
Positive, it is formed by anneKing Ish tO the Positive ; a,^, Black, bluckisk ;
hut whftn the Positive ends in tf it is dropped; as, White, whitish. Set
Dr. Wehstrr''s Improoed Grammar of the English Language.
Monosyllahic adjectives are compared by annexing r or er to the Posi-
tive to form the Comparative, and .s.' or est to the Positive to form tlie Su-
perlative ; as. Mill, milder, tiiillesL.
When a Disf>yl<d)ic adjective has the accent on the second syllable, or
ending in y or le, it admits of the same termination ; as, Polite, politer, po-
litest. Iloly, holier, holiest. Able, abler, ablest ; but other dissyllabic ad-
jectives, and all a(>j;ectives of more than two syllables, seldom or never ad-
mit of these terminations, but are compared by prefixing more and most^
less and least.
Some adjectives admit of most as a sufBi ; as, Nether, nethernwst.
Some adjectives are said to be secondary, and qualify other adjectives ;
as. Pale red lining. Bark brown cloth.
Tho Degrees of Comparison arc illustrated by the following Diagram :
Figure 1 illustrates the increase of the Positive, or Comparison ascend,
ing ; us, Positive, Wise ; Comp&r!\l\vc, wiser ; Superlative, w«cs/.
Figure 2 illustrates dimunition of the Positive, or Comparison descciuling;
as, P. Wise ; C. less wise; S. least wm.
Figure 3 illustrates the comparison of such adjectives as have, four de-
grees; as Imperfect, Greenish; P. green ; C. greener; S. greenest.
Tt will be perceived by inspecting the Diagram, that the Snperlativi' <>^-
pres.scs the highest or lowest degree of quality ; the lines S**** S, in Fi;;-
uros 1 and 2, make these extremes.
AVhen an attribute is merely named, it may be said to express an ab.-tiMct
quality ; as, Cold, hot, good, bad. In the former words called cold and
Jiot, we merely get the abstract idea of pihysical quality ; in the latter, that
of moral quality ; but when we say, a roll day, a hot day, a good man, a
bad man, the adjectives may be said to be assumtd of their supers respec-
tively; again, when we say, this day is cold, that day teas hot, this man is
good, that man was bad, these attributes may be said to be predicated of
the subjects of their respective sentences. See Construction of Elements.
Hem. 1. — Some adjectives are •rrrgular in comparison ; as, Good, letter, beat.
Little, less, i III f^t. f'ore, forinrr.Ji'.tt.
Kkm. "i — Soino adjcctiTcs nro defcrtivf, being wanting in gome one of tho dcgrcofl ;
as, 7iethn; n.th'rmunt. In tliis adjoctivo, the positive is wanting
JJ4 ANALYXIGAB, IliLITSTRATITE ANa
Rem. 3; — Some adjeciives express quality absolutely^ aiaJ do not logically admifr
©f comparison J a,B, Round, square, parallel. To these may be added such as havfr
a positive form, but a superlative signification ; as, Perfect, chief, supreme, extreme,
etc. Our best writers and speakers, however, frequently compare such adjectives as
4he last mentioned ; as, "Our sight is the jnost perfect of all our senses." — Addison-
This is done as a matter of convsnience, not that any one supposes that any thing
can bo absolutely pcr/ec<, and another thing more perfect or most perfect;— the ex-
preasioD, too, is generally more concise and elegant than to express the same idea
by circuiiilocution. It would be more elegant to say our sight is the most perfect',-
Ihan to say our sight ax>pro(iches nearest to perfection. Such adjectives, however,
should not be needlessly compared ; as, " The Svpremeat Being." " The cJiiefesii
good," etc.
llKu. 4. When adjectives are comp.ared by the adverbs more and most, less and'^
least, some authors advise not to parse the adverb with the adjective, but separate
from it. We do not, however, see the importance of this ; as more wise means pre-
cisely the same thing as wiser. Adverbs thus used do nothing more than to assist
the adjective in performing the degrees of comparison, as the auxiliary verbs do the
principal verbs in forming their modes and tenses. We regard either w»y as cor-
leut.
Rhm. 5. Qualifying adjectives not only express the quality of the nouns of
which they are assumed or predicated, but they also limit the extent of their mean-
ing; as, when we say a red roeo, the adjective red limits the noun rosf to a less
number; as there are fewer red roses, than roses. And, as other qualities are added,
the extension of the meaning will be still more circumscribed ; as, "A good, wise,
and prudsni prince." Ilonce it is said in such cases, that the extension is diminish-
ed, and the comprehension increased ;. since the aoun comprehends a greater number
of qualities, but extends to a fewer number of things.
Model. " David was » ptosis prince." Fious is a qualifying adjective, in^
the positive degree — (compared) — pious, more pious, most pious, and be-
longs to prince, according to Rule 15.
Questions. — Why is pious an adjective? Because it limits a noun. Why
a qualifying adjective ? Because it expresses a quality of the noun prince,,
as well as limits it. Why in the positive degree ? Because it expresses an
kidirect comparison.
EXEKCISKS,
Man is a great einner ; Christ is a great Saviour. Some roses are red,
and others are white. These are parallel lines. Parallel lines can never
meet, and form an angle. We should worship the Supreme Being ; he is
worthy of our highest praises. The law is holy, just and good. His heart
is as hard as the nether mill stone. A good man enjoys comfort in the-
darkest hour of adversity. I purchased a piece of dark b?own eloth. The-
aurora borealie imparts a reddish hue to the sky.
The cold, bleak winds may on yoa blow,
And darkness gather round ;
Yet this blest thing, full well I know,
Will ever bright be found.
CHAPTER XIX.
SPECIFYING OR LIMITING ADJECTIVES.
§ 1. Specifying adjectives point out their guhjects or supers
by some distinct specificcations ; but do not express any quality.
eONSTRUOTIVK ORAMHAK. 115
As specifying adjectives express various shades and colorings of thouf^ht,
<;hey may, with propriety, be classified under the following heads, viz. —
Distri/nitive, IfcmonMrativc, Indefinite^ Interrogative, Kumeral, Ordinal,
and (-ire um^ ta ti tia I.
The Distributive adjectives denote iha person or things which make up a
<oholc or cla^, eacli taken separately and singly. They are each, every^
cither and neither. These frcipiently b^Jong to the subjects of universal
ipropositions; as, " Every man is accountable to God."
The Demonstratives point out their subjects in the moat definite manner.
They are this, that, thei^c, t?iose, former, latter and yonder ; as, " This
tree. " Yonder house," etc.
The Indefinite point out their subjects in a general or indefinite manner.
They are any, all, sitch, same, some, other, anoth$r, and perhaps some
others.
The Interrogative arc joined to nouns in asking qiiestions ; as, "Which
way shall I fiy V" " What man is that?"
Numeral specifying adjectives limit their subject in respect to number.
They are used in counting ; as, " One man." " Twenty men."
Ordinal are used in numbering, or in expressing the order in which su-
pers or subjects arc arranged ; as, First, oecmid, third, etc
Circumstantial arises from the peculiar eircumstances under which they
are employed ; as, " A Scottish bonnet." " An Arabian herse." "A desert
thistle, etc. These are so numerous that no list can be given.
Rem. 1. — Many writers call such words as my, thy, his, her, etc., possessive adjec-
tive 2>roTi07i.ns. That these words limit nouns by denoting possession, is readily con-
ceded, but the same may be predicated of all nouns in the possessive ca.-o ; and ae
these represent nouns in the possessive case, we see no good reason why they should
not be parsed simply as pronorms.
Rkm. 2.— Though wo have arranged the specifying adjectives under the preceding
heads, all the distinction that is required to be made in parsing the adjective, is
that of quaiijyitig and specifying.
Rem. i. — Specifying adjectives sometimes belong to pronouns, though not fre-
quently ; as, " A good understanding have <dl they that fear the Lord."
Rem. 4.— J.Iany of the specifying adjectives are used as substitutes; but when
they are so used they are not specifying adjectives ; as, " None performs his duty
too well."
Rem. 5. — The distinction between qualifying and specifying adjectives, is not
always very obvious; for they frequently run into each other in various ways.
" The northern hemisphere." Northern not only points out tbe situation of the hem-
isphere, but it also designates its local relation to the enuthern hemisphere. " A
human action." Human not only limits action to acts which human beings perform,
but also, by association of ideas, it involvec soi^ething of quality, of lationality,
and accountability. '
Model. "I saw that man before."
T hat is a sjieei/'ying or limiting adjective, aod Ixjiongs io man.
Questions. — Why is tliat an adjective? Because it is joined to a noun.
Why a specifying adjective ? Because it limits the noun without express-
ing any quality. '
Exercises.
He looked this way, and that way, and, when he saw no one, he slew tho
Egyptian. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. Every man
has sotiie faults; but some per.sons can not sec their own faults. All we,
like shcc[>, liave gone astray. Every heart knows its own sorrows. Yon-
<ler house drew mo from the road. What books are these ? He was the
£rst man fJial mountotl tbe works, t'-a^sar entered ii&\\\ with Ave thousand
116 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
men. Bonaparte invadecj Russia with an army of four hundred" thousarf
isoldiers. He purchased an iron plow. He wears a gold watch.
Let every mortal ear attend,
And every heart rejoice ;
The t'"uaipet of the gospel sounds
With an inviting voice.
CHAPTER XX.
ADVERBS OR MODIFIERS.
§ 1, Adverb, from the Latin acZ,tO, and verhiim, a word, is a
word used to modify the meaning of verba, participles, adjec-
tives, and other adverbs.
Adverbs may be divided into four general classes, — adverbs of place, of
time, of cause, of manner.
Adverbs of ^^ace answer the questions lohere, ^ohither, rohence ; as, Wher^,
there, above, yonder, lielow, so?neicJiere, bach, vpwards, downwards, etc.
Adverbs of ^me answer the questions, ichen, how long, how of I en; as,
Then, yesterday, always, ever, contmually, of ten, frequently, etc.
Adverbs of cause answer the questions, why, icherefore ; as, Why, where-
fore, therefore, then.
Adverbs of manner answer the questions, how ; as, Elegantly, faith-
fully, fairly, etc. They are generally derived from adjectives denoting
quality.
Rem. 1. — Adverbs are of comparatively recent invention. They took their position
in the great family of words long since the other parts of speech. The truth of this
remark may be safely inferred, if nothing were known of their history ; for they
are a kind of substitute for some two or throe other parts of sp«ech ; as, " She
walks gracefully ;" in this sentence, gracefully is a substitute for " in a graceful
manner^ The pupils may be profitably exercised in pointing out the adverbial
equivalents, by which their meaning and application will be more fully understood
as exhibited in the followipg specimens : i7ere, to or in this place ; there, to nr in
that place; where, in what place ; whtreforfffor what reason; therefore, for that or
this reason ; how, in what manner, etc. Por construction of adverbs, see Construc-
tion of Elementi.
Rem. 2. — When a proposition is joined to an adjective (there being an ellipsis of
the noun), the phrase, thus formed, m»y be called an adverbial phrase ; as, In vain,
in short, at length, on high, etc.
Model. " The lowering clouds move slozcly." Slowly is an adverb, and
modifies the verb moved, according to Rule 25.
Questions. — Why is slowly an adverb? Because, in this example, it is
added or joined to a verb to point out the manner of its action.
Exercises.
The Roman women once voluntarily contributed their most precious jew-
els to save the city. My friends visit me very often at my father's office.
Do justly, love mercy, and walk hum !;»ly before thy Creator. This pen
writes extremely well. Why does he delay so long ? How are the mighty
fUllen ? He hate couie at length. In short, I am a downright curious fel-
CONSTRUCTIVE ORAMMXR. llV
low. Jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain top. Whither
wentest thou ? If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. How long
will war desolate the earth ? Where dwellest thou ? Then let the last loud
trumpet sound.
Merrily, merrily shall I live now,
Under the blossom that hangs on the bough.
CHAPTER XXI.
PREPOSITIONS.
§ 1. Preposition, from the Latin prepositus, placed before,
is a word placed before some noun or pronoun, which it governs ;
it also shows the relation which this word bears to some other
word which precedes* it in construction ; as, " John went with
his sister to church."
With, in this sentence, shows the relation between we7it and sister —
went with sister, and to shows the relation between tcent and church — toent
to church.
The term which precedes the preposition in construction, is called its «»-
tecedent term ; that which follows it, its subsequent term.
A noun, pronoun, verb, participle, adjective, or even an adverb, may be
the antecedent term of the preposition.
A noun, pronoun, participle, or a part of a sentence, may be its subse-
quent.
Rem. 1. — The terms of the preposition are often transposed. The pupil must be
guided by the sense alone to determine what words are oonneeted by the prepogi.
tion.
Rem. 2 — When the two terms of the preposition are read in juxta position with
it, they will make sense.
Rem. 3. — A preposition sometimes shows precisely where & person or thing is, by
showing the relation which the person or thing inquired for, bears to a leries of
terms; as, '• The geiitleman is at home in the house up stairs, by the fire." (Se*
Construction of Elements.)
Rem. 4. — Though wo do not believe that a list of prepositions is generally useful
to learners, and may in some instances be injurious; since the same word is not un-
frequcntly used interchangeably as a preposition, an adverb, and a conjanction ;
yet, because teachers generally desire it, and it may be useful as a table of referonoe,
the principal prepositions are given in tho folllowing list :
Behind By
Below Concerning
Beneath Down
Beside 1 During
Besides j Except
Between Excepting
Betwixt For, From
Beyond In, Into
* Which precedes It in construction, i. e., in the natural order of conetruction.
13
Abroad
Amid
Amidfct J
About
Above
Among
Amongst
According to
Across
Around^
After
At
Against
Athwart
Along
Before
118 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Near
Respecting
Of, Off
Round
Out*
Since
Out of
Savef
Over
Though
Pact
Throughout
Regarding
Till
To
Up, Upon
Touching
With
Toward )
Towards J
Within
V,'ithout
Under
Via
Underneath
Until, Unto
B-Eis.—Accm-dwg, notwithstanding, during, respecting, regarding, etc., were no
doubt formerly used as participles, and they are still so regarded by some authors,
and may be considered as such in some instances. "Notwithstanding his poverty,
he is content." Dr. Webster says that in'thjs example, notwithstanding is a parti"
ciple, being composed of the adverb not and the participle withstanding, and that
poverty ir in the nominative case absolute. Thus, he is content, his poverty not-
withstanding, i. 6; not hindering or opposing.j
Model. " He went from London." From is a preposition, and connects
went and London, and shows the relation between them, by Rule 30.
Questions. — Why is from a preposition ? Because it connects words, and
shoAvs the relation between them. Which is its antecedent term ? Went.
Why ? Because it precedes it in the natural order of construction. Which
the subsequent term ? London. Why ? Because it follows it in the nat-
ural order of construction. In what case is its subsequent term London ?
In the objective case. By what is it governed? By the preposition from.
Exercises.
Turn from your evil ways, 0 house of Israel ! He inaketh me lie down
in green pastures. On either side of the river, grows the tree of life,
which yields her fruit every month. He leadeth me in the paths of right-
eousness for his name's sake. Under the rose, are many thorns. The
AUwise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man for the best of
purposes ; but, alas ! he has often perverted it to the worst of uses. Athwart
the sky, red lightnings flashed. Across the orbits of the planet, the comet
rolls in flame.
Now, in the garden 'neath the bow'rs,
He slumbers in the tomb ;
Upon it, fall the summer show'rs,
Around it, flowers bloom.
The king of France, with forty thousand men,
Marched up the hill, and then marched down again.
* Out should generally be parsed as an adverb.
+ For eave, except, but, etc., see Peculiar Constructions.
t As I quote from memory, I may not have used Dr. Webster's precise language, but 1
have given bis sentiments.
ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVH AND 119
CHAPTER XXII.
CONJUNCTIONS OR CONNECTIVES.
§ 1. Conjunction, from the Latin conjunction a joining, is a
word that connects words and sentences in construction, 'join-
ing two or more simple sentences into one compound one,' and
continuing the sentence at the pleasure of the writer or speaker.
It also begins sentences after a full period, manifesting some
relation between sentences in the general tenor of discourse.
Th^ principal conjunctions, used in connecting discourses, are and or
either, nor, neither, hut, than. ' '
Rem.!.— Wo regard the common division of conjunctions into copulative and
disji/nctivc, us unp/idosophical and Ulogical. '^^vu.iauvc ana
Of all the conjunctions called copulative, and alone deserves that name, and a. tn
dj^jmctive conjunctions, the name itself is objectionable. None in the list wiU co
?rodac.d r 1 ^•^"'^° tl^^' ^«« does not affect the opposition ; but the opposT ,o„ il
produced by other word.s as in the following sentence ; « Eyes have thev A»/ .h
X SiLr ' A^'' have they, they see not ; ears have they, they hear not."-(y '
JJr. Webster s Improved Grammar of the English Lavgvugc.) ^
KEJr ^.-A more logical division would be into copulative, alternative, nrsativP
adversative, comparative, causal and illcitive '-'■'=' native, negative,
thits' XKa7SThe'^S? p^Jeri'cTt'e" .7 "Sl'jJ 'JLZ S^r^--^ "
STv bTaffi"^^-; r '7' ''iT '' ^«-eVor:ii ctpi;d'b7:«rs' .?.zs,:.^;
r)Avn?"°' " T^ T ""^\" separately ; as, "John is a good student," etc
nnHvn off "" f /'""'^'r "'^"^ ^^'^^^^^ '^^ °l«"^°°ts which express an Hter-
1,1^ w., m'' "nn T 'V :°^^' ''^''^' ^^■P'-'^^^^ tl^e .amc idea;^s, "John or
«a^» l! ^^^ '%",^'""?'^"/ °°« °'- tlie other; but it is unceria n which "11 J
fnTJ.^f y/' ^"^[C ^'^ "'" ^-^'^'"Ple. there is only an alternative of W* •
for bay and g«7/mean the same thing. Or is frequently preceded by Juher
rJil'A f f f'^'^'fy P"^,«:J«d by neither, Is a «.g'^?L : .since the predicafe is
S^'sTottL^t;^'rGV'::t 'sr
^/e and .«../,; as will be c.ea'rly^'^L^nty'res'otinTlh^ en\:Siro^^t^Jot^^^^^^^
riefv'^Srh.°7"°'"°"r *" '"°^ '^^ J°^° °° "'^^^^^ "l^i"!^ express some contra"^
oxTr'M^e^f'opl^^^^^^^^^^^ *"« <^°- -' «'-y« joinonamcmbo;
coSnafoTwirh •;?°J^°°'''\1« "° «"ch as join on a clause which is. in some way.
i7«VLaSl!'£uoAirr"''"'^*''' '^*' "Thomas is taller /^a„ Ilehry.'. hi..
^<^^^iS^J^X^;y^:Z:^^^ '>7-- they
arc good." In this example, the r«J^?r iras^Uned hut !n /hr n*'^-'-' '""^''■''^^,'^
the rmsoA is assigned • " It h.« 1-111^8^ h!!.?/ .1 ' \ • ^' folo>.ing example,
. JSrgo" ;'i'.r:"' '°^'' ■"■ ' ""*"°° ^ -■ ■■ "■'■•^"» ■• 'SrsJip,, .^i^ ,
120 ANALTTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
tioDs; ftfl, Either or, Neither nor, Though yet, Both and, Not only hut, etc. (See
Part I., Model.)
Rem. 4. — Though w» have given several divisions of the conjuction — to which
more, perhftps, might be added, yet we recommend no division whatever in parsing;
it is enough to say it is a conjunction, and tell what it connects.
Model " Wheat grows in fields, and men reap; it" And is a con-
sanction, and connects the two clauses of the sentence.
Exercises.
He came with her, but he went away without her. He can succeed, if
be will try. Joseph and his brother reside in New York. Both Adams
and JefiFerson died on the foarth of July. Job was wiser than his friends.
Mary lored Jesus more than the things of the world. Charity suftereth
l©ng, and is kind. Daniel Webster was not only a distinguished statesman,
bat he was also an eminent orator. Those trees arc flourishing, because
th« ground is rich. ^
The -way of the transgressor is hard ;
S is a transgressor ;
Therefore the way of S is hard.
Ye are neither cold nor hot. Either Henry or James is in fault.
*' There generous fruits that never fail,
On trees immortal grow ;
There rocke, and hills, and brooks, and vales,
With milk and henev flow."
CHAPTER XXIII.
INTERJECTIONS OR EXCLAMATIONS.
§ 1. Interjection, fcom the Latin inter, between, and jec-
(ttm, thrown, is a word generally thrown between words or
sentences, to express some strong emotion or feeling of the
speaker. As interjections have no grammatical construction
in a sentence, they can hardly be said to belong to written
language.
Interiections express •vsirxon^ passions, feelingSy or emotions of the mind;
as, Oh 1 alas, X)i*h, pshaw, hail, welcome, hleas me, etc.
•
Rem. — When a noun or pronoun of the second or third person, without any in-
tervening prepositions, follows the interjection, it is said to bo in the riominative
case ; but, when a pronoun of the,A'«< persan follows, it is put in the objective case ;
as, " 0 thou 1" "0 my country !" ''A*, mc- !" Hence seme grammarians have come
to the conclusion that interjections govern these cases respectively. See Kirk-
ham's Grammar, page 164. But, as interjections have no dependent construction in
8 sentence, they certainly can have do government; consequently the words which
follow them must be disposed of in some other way. If the noun or pronoun is
CONSTBUOTITB GRAMMAR. 121
■-' . <>m
■iirecrtly aidresserl, it Is in tho nominative case independent, as it is called ; as, " 0
Lord !" But, if no address is made ; as, " Oh ! my country !" it is in the case inde-
pendent by exclamation, or it may be, in some instances, in the objective case, be-
ing governed by some verb or preposition understood ; as, " Oh ! piUj my coantry,"
or " /ie//> my country." In such expressions as "Ah mo! miserable !" that mc is
governed by a verb or preposition underotood, is obvious ; ae, " Ah ! pity me who am
miserable." ,(Soe Peculiar Constructions, also Goold Brown's Grammar, paga 175.
CHAPTER XXIV.
PBCULIAR CONSTRUCTIONS, IDIOMS, AND INTRICACIES.
Rem. 1. — Some verbs, such as giving, asking, sending, etc., are followed by two
©■bjective cases — one denoting a personal, the other a verbal object. The one whick
its directly effected by the verb's action, is called tho direct object, the other the in-
"direct; as, "John gave me the fruit." In this sentence fruit is the direct object,
»nd me the indirect object. The indirect object of all such constractions is gov
erned by some preposition nnderstqpd. This will be seen by the transp'ositions of
the objectives ; as, " John gave the fruit to me." In analyzing* such sentences,
the learner will observe that the indirect object constitutes an implenary member ;
las, " [John gave ( , me)* the fruit.] " [The merchant sent ( , me) the book] (by
mail.)"
In all such constructions the sense alone must determine what proposition should
4)0 supplied. " My father bought me a horse." " John's teacher asked him a ques-
tion," In the first of these examples /or shonld be supplied ; and in the second, of
sTiould be used — asked being nearly synonymous with demanded. Thus, " My father
bought a horse /oj- mo." " John's teacher asked a question of him."
Kf.m. 2. — When a verb is followed by two objectives — one denoting the material
out of which the other is made ; tho one which denotes tho matsrial is governed
by of understood ; as, " [.John's teachers niade ( , him) a good scholar.]"
The truth of this remark will be seen by the transposition of the two objectives ;
thus, " John's teachers made a good scholar of Mm." John's teachers evidently made
■the scholar and not him.
This construction harmonizes with the Latin language, viz., the noun denoting
the material out of which another is made, is put in the ablative case, and transla-
ted with of before it. Some authors govern iho first objective by the verb, and put
the second after to hc^ understood ; as, " Jahn's teacher made hivt to be a good
mcliolfir."
Rem. ?,. — When a sub-member, which breaks its super, is introduced to measure
the exact overplus or deficiency of what is afiirmed in its super, by is understood;
as, " [He gave ( , twenty dollars) too much] (for the horse.)" " [Tho tea is (, six
pound.s) too heavy.]"
But when the super is not broken by its sub, by must be expressed; as, " [T'qo tea
was too heavy] (by six pounds.)
KE>f. 4. — When tho verb t^> viake, in tho passive voice, is used in t^e sense of to
change, the noun or pronoun which follows it in construction, is governed by into
understood; ns, "Coirmand that those stones bo made bread"--!, e.., [These stonei
can bo made] (into broad,) (command th«t.)
RE>f. 5.— Wljen the verb/?//, in tho passive voice, moans to inform, the noun or
pronoun which follows it in construction, is governed by of understood; is. " [That
iunfortunato man was told] ( , the truth,)'' i. e , he was informed of the truth. The
same may be predicated of forgive, used in the sense of relieve ; as, "Forgivo us
•our debt"!?'' — i c., relieve us of our debts.
Rem. 6. — When tho verb teach in tho passive voice, i^ used in the sense of instruct,
*Thatia, separating a eeiitwice Into claiises and phrases.
123 ANALYTICAL, CONSTRUCTIVE AND
the noun which follows it in construction, is governed by in underetood ; as, " Thosa
young ladies were taught granomar at college" — i. e., tbey were instructed in
grammar.
In constructions like the foregoing, some authors of high standing contend that
verbs in the passive Toioe govern the objective case. With all due deference to their
opinisn, we must nevertheless dissent from it It is admitted by all that the nomi-
native case of y verb in the passive voice receives or endures, the action, which
action is performed by some agent expressed or understood. Now, as the novilna-
tive is the object of the verb's action, we can not see how something else, which is
entirely distinct from the nominative, can at the same time, be the object of the
same action.
Rem. 7. — When become is used in the sense of g7'ow or increase, into is under-
Btood ; as, " The tcion becomes a tree." '• A calf becoincs an ox."
In the above examples ox and tree can not, nor, are not, predicated of scinn and
calf ; for n- scion is not a fee, nor is a calf an ox ; 1 ut a scion grows into a tree, and
a calf increases into an ox.
There are some cases, however, in which the noan or pronoun which follows
become may bo regarded as predicated of the subject, as, " John has becomo a schol-
ar." This expression is equivalent to /ic is now a scholar. When become is used
in the sense of befit, it is transitive, and governs the objective case; as,
" Eternal Power, whoso high abode
Becomes the grandeur of a God."
Rkm. 8. — The noun or pronoun which follows like or unlike in construction, ie
governed by to or unto understood ; as, " [Cbarit^', (like , the sun,) brightens every
object] (around it.)"
Like, in such constructions, is now generally regarded as a preposition ; and, as its
construction as a preposition is more simple, concise, and equally perspicuous, it is .
to be preferred.
Rem. 9. — Nouns which denote time, dimension,, value and some others of
similar import, nro generally governed by a proposition understood ; as, " [He
visited me].( , last week)" " [Whoever shall compel thee to goj ( , a mile,) [go ,]
rwith him) ( , twain.)" That is, He visited me last week. (Jo through a mile, or
through the space of a mile.
Some eminent authors, however, say that the nouns denoting time, dimension,
etc., are in the objective case without & governing word. That the actual expression
of the understood elliptical words would mar Iho euphony of the sentence, is read-
ily admitted; but may not the same, in a greater or less degree, be predicated of
the expression of all elliptical words ? Those, however, who prefer using the latter
mode of construction, are sustained by authority of the highest grade.
In such constructions the preposition, if not expressed, must be understood, or
there is none ; if und«rslood, the remark is correct. If there is none, we cannot
sea how anything can bo in the objective case, and yet be the object of nothing.
The truth is, such words, whether used with or without prepositions, are used*
adverbially.
Rem. 10. — Euphony requires the omission of governing prepositions before the
noun koine, when construed after intransitive verbs of motion; as, *' [He went}
( , home,)" — /. e.. He went to home.
Rem. 11. — Worth, the imperative of the Saxon weorthan, was formerly used as a
verb, in the English language. Some such constructions still remain in the old
English authors ; as, " Wo worth the chase." " Wo worth the day." In such con-i
structions, the noun or pronoun which follows isorth is governed by to or mt-to un-
derstood ; as, " Wo worth the day," — i. e., Wo be to the day.
Worth, according to Dr. Webster, when it means equal in value, is an adjective, and
invariably follows the noun or pronoun, in construction, which it qualifies; as, "The
book is worth a doilar." Worth is also followed by a name denoting price or value,
which name, according to some, is governing by of understood; but, by others, it
is supposed to be in the objective case"wJthout a governing word. In constructions
like the above, Mr. James Brown contends that worth is a noun governed by of under-
stood ; as, *' The book is worth a dollar"— i. c, the book, is o/the worth of a dollar.
*If such adverbial elements liruil a substantive element, through the medium of some
adjective element, they may be called secondary or helping adjectives ; but if they modify
a verb or participle indirectly, i. e., through the medium of some other element, they may
be called secondary or helping adverbs.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 123
Mr. Cardell entertains similar views. Messrs. Goold Brown, Pardon Davis, and
some others, consider, consider worth in such constructions & prf'posi'ion. To this
we lijivo no objection.
WYn-n moral worth is tho leading idea, worthy should be used ,• as, " He is not
worthy of my notice."
KhM. 12. — A writer's signature is in the oVjectivo case, governed by 6?/ under-
stood : as, " Dear sir, I write for your pleaiwre — " Peter Paelky."
(See Frazee's Grammar.) Some suppose that the writer's signature is in apposition
with I or we, as the case may be.
Rem. 13. — When the preposition for follows the interjection O in construction,
its antecedent term is found in an implenary member, which is tho trunii member
of tho sentence ; as, " 0 for a glance of heavenly day." Construed, "[0 I wisK\
1 2
{for a glance) (of heavenly day.)" " 0 for them,"— i. c, 0 I sigh fur them.
Rem. 14. — When two prepositions come together in construction, tho former gives
an implenary member, to which it belongs; as, " Drive the dog from under the
table " — t. e , Drive the dog from thephcc. ichich is under the table.
In such constructions, some grammarians call the two propositions a compound
preposition ; but others reg.ird the former as an adverb.
" To save himself nnd household //om amidst a world devote to universal wreck."
Speaking of this sentence, Mr. Bailey says that from, as a preposition, governs the
phrase amidst a world, and that amidst governs icorld. According to tho views
given above, the sentence may be rendered thus: " 'Tg save bimsdf and household
from ihi destruction, of raiu ichich is amidst a world devote to miiversal wreck."
"He looked from below tho precipice "—«'. e., from the place which is below the
precipice. " Ida stands over a.7<a«,9< old Troy." Oi;cr, in this example, is an ad-
verb, according to Mr. Bailey, and wjairist a preposition, governing Troy,
" Let thistles grow instead of wheat." Some grammarians parse instead of as a
preposition, others parse insteud as an adverb modifying grows ; but Dr. Webster
regards si€ad as a jinun governed, of course, by in. " Let thistles grow instead of
wheat," being equivaleiU to, Let thistles grow in the room of wheat, or in the jdace
of wheat.
Rem. \h.~That, not ured as a specifying adjective or relative pronoun, is general-
ly treated by authors as a conjunction. To this, however, Dr. Webster and several
other eminent philolo^^^sts object— contending tbnt that is iiever used as a conjunc
tion, but as a sub.«titute for tho member of tho sentence, which follows it in construc-
tion ; as, " The living know that they shall die." They shall die — tho livin!>' know
ihat.
Whatever may be said of that, as a connective, it must, nevertheless, be obvious
to every reflecting mind, that it is a substitute for the member which follows it, in
tho objective case, and governed by know.
When <^a< is followed by a member denoting tho objector purpose, for which
€omething is done, that, as a substitute, is governed by for understood ; as, " James
went to school i/it/^ he might learn philosophy." James went to school.. Tor what
did James go to school 7— <Aa< he might learn philosophy. Did he go Ut that?
Yes, he went fer that.
When that joins on a mombnr which expresses a consequence or effect, it is con-
strued after the phrase, tho consequence wa», undertood ; as, ""The Pre.videi ; was
so ill, that he failed to stnd his message." The President was so ill, the consequence
teas that he failed to send his message.
When that fallows such adjectives as glad, certain, confidence, etc., it i.« ;;uv-
erned by o/ understood ; as, " Paul was glad tliat Titus had come." T;v,./had
come, P.aul was glad of that.
When that follows verbs which 'express a determination of the will, such as re-
solve, determine, etc., it is governed by on understood ; as, " Tho Captain resolveU
that the ship should sail," The .■'hip should sail, tho Captain resolved on that.
That sometimes follows the iniorjoction 0, in construition. In such cases it i.s
governed by a varb or preposition understood; as, "0! Ihat I had wings like a
dove." If I had wings like a dove— 0 ! I desire that.
When thit is used merely in the sense of namely, but not synonymous with it, it
is construed after which is or which was understood ; as, " And ho spake a parable
unto this end, that men ought always to pray and not to faint." Ho spake a parable
onto this ^nd, which was that men ought always to pray and not to faint.
Here that makes its nearest approach to a connective. Those who prefer parsing
thai as a conjunction, in cases like the above, are sustained by authors generally.
124 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATITB AND
That, as a sustitote, in some cases, is governed by to understood ; as," Take heedl
that yo do not your alms before men to bo seen of them," i. «., take heed to that, etc.
Observation. It is not contended that that is not a connective, but it is more than
a connective; the relative pronoun is a connective, but it is a pronoun at the sam«
time. Regarding that as a conjunction, it should be construed in the member which
it gives, and, in many instances, it is quite convenient to construe it as a conjunction;
as, " [Ue came] (in order) (that justice might be done.)" In is a preposition, in this
•xample, governing order as a noun and thai is generally regarded as a conjunction.
RjtM. 16. — That is not unfrequently found in the same constrnotion with but ; as,
" I would myself define, and defend your rights, hut that it might conflici: with your
privilege."
Mr. Bailey supposes that but and that, in this sentence, are both conjunctions, be-
longing to their rtspectivo members. Thus, I myself would define and defend your
rights, but f^r the reason that it might conflict with your privilege.
That and it are both evidently substitutes for the clause which precedes them in
construction ; then one of them may be dispensed with as useless; as, I would my-
self define and defend your rights, but that might conflict with your privilege. That,
M now used, is a substitute for the member that precedes it, and in the nominative
case to miijht conflict; or we may drop*/Afl<, and say, I would myself define and
defend your rights, bat it might conflict with yoar privilege. The sense is equally
clear in both constructions. We can not dispense with but, but either that or it
ought, in our judgment, to be expunged.
What is sometimes improperly used in such constructions instead of that ; as, " I
can not see but what he was in fault." It should be, I can not see hut that he was
in fault. But, in tbi.i sentence, has the lane meaning as ojdy ; as, He was in fault,
I can only see that. (See Appendix.)
Rrm. 17. — rZ/rtf is frequently construed after i< when j7 introduces a sentence,
and is a substitute for some clause which succeeds it in construction; as, "It may
be observed ihnt the educational advantages of our ancestors were much inferior to
ours." In this sentence it and that are both substitutes for the member which fol-
lows them, as will be seen by trans^posing the construction — in which case i^ will
vanish ; as, The e4ucati<.'nal advantagts of our ancestors were much inferior to ours,
that may b« observed, if that\s parsed as a substitute, it may be put in apposition
with il, but, as a conjunction, it connects the members of the sentence.
Rkm. is. — That Was formerly used in the sense of what; as, " We speak that we
do know, and testify that we hare seen." " ITiat thou doest, do quickly." (See
Construction of What.) This use of tttat is now obsolete.
Rem. 19. — Some adverbs are construed with nouns, such as only, alone, ago, and
perhaps, some others of similar import ; as, " By greatness I do not mean the bulk
of a single object only, but the largeness of a whole view." — Addison. " I waa
there just thirty years wjo"
In the first example only evident modifies the noun ohyect, and, in the last, ago
has its grammatical conocctinn with the noun years.
Only and ago, in fuch constructions, are generally regarded as anomalons ; since,
according to the laws of grammar, an adverbial element can not limit a substantive
element. But, as oj a single object is an adjective element, and years is used adver-
bially, if we regard these adverbs only and ago as modifying these as elements
and Bot as nouns, used as such, the anomal ceases ; but when such words as only,
etc., modify nouns or pronouns, we see no luflSeient reason why they should not be
called aojectives, as they really are ; as. " An only son." (See Webster's Unabridged
Dictionary, Art. Only). Care should be taken in the construction of such words, ua
the meaning of the sentence may vary as often as these modifying words are ap-
plied to different elements. " I only saw him." Only here modifies /, and the
meaning is that /, and no body else, saw him. I saw him only. Here ordy modi-
fes him, and the meaning is. I saw him, and no one else. I saw only him.
Only now modifies the verb f:aw, the meaning is, / saw, but no one else did see.
Rem. 20.— Some verbs in the imperative mood, or, at least, having the imperative
form, agree with a nomifiative of the third person ; as, " Be it enacted." Authors
are not agreed with regard to the'manner of disposing of such constructions.
Some suppose lfc« verb to be in the infinitive mode, following let understood ; a«,
" Let it be enaH*d ;" others regard it as an anomalous expression in the imperative
mode ; but when the sentence is petitionative, the verb ought to be regarded as being
in the potenttel sHwii?, having the auxiliary understood; as, "Hallowed be thy
Bame,"— I. «., " May thy name be hallowed."
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 125
Kev. 21.— ' They love one another." "Let us help ench other." These and
aiinilar constructions are of frequent os'urrenca in the English language, nn.l may
be disposed of in either of the followin ; ways : " They love— 0H« person lovis a»-
o^//rr person." " Lot us help— let frtcA person help the o//^er j'jrson ;" or owe «»"
other and mch other mxy bo regarded a,-! phrases in the objective case, and g^jverned
by the verbs lone and help. The latter mode is preferable.
" Ye are one another's }oj." Mr. Qoold Brown, who has a deservedly hi^b r^p'i-
tttion as a grammarian, .separates one mother in construction ; he says thnt one is
in the nominative Ciiso, put by appo.sitii>u with ye, and another's is in the possessive
case, governed hy joy. If they should be separated, still, in construction, we would
rather suggest that o«« is the nominative case to a verb uuderstood : a.«, 'Ye «r3
joy— one is another's joy." But let us consirue the sentence, as we have a r.ght to
do, as follows: " Ye are the joy of one mwtkcr." Nrtw both words fall und.jr the
same construction ; and, in whatever ca-e one is, another is in the same. Then one,
in the first construction, may be regard -d »« being in the jto.mmsj'cc case v.ithuut
the sign. These words ate, however, sometimes separated in construciinn, a prepo-
sition being construed between them; as " Then they that feared the Lord, spake
often one to another-" One may be parsed in apposition with they, or in the nomi-
native case to spitke understood.
Rem . 22.— " 3fe <AmA-ff." The peculiarity of this construction, consists of the
use of an objective for a nominative, and the agreement of a verb of the third per-
son with a nominative of the first person. Hm was formerly used in the same way,
but has long since been laid aside. As sucli expressions as " Me thinks," and " Mo
thought," are anomalous, they should be sparingly used.
Examples for Exercise.
My mother taught me the letters. They asked me a question. They
made General Jackson President. The goods were ten pounds too light
John was told the trutk I know that my Redeemer liveth, and that he
shall stand upon the earth in the latter da}'. That man is mortal, no one
denies. Ye will not come unto me, that ye may have life. The weather
was so''cold that travelling was almost intolerable. My knife is worth a
shilling. She is worth him and all his relations. He attended the lectures
last winter at Charleston. At the break of day ghosts troop home to
church-yards. I have sinned in that I have betrayed the innocent blood ;
and they said what is that to us ? see thou to that. A^hosoever lovcth
father or mother more than me, is not worthy of me. They were taught
grammar by an eminent professor. Be it remembered, that it ever has
been the pride and boast of America, that the rights for which she fought,
were the rights of mankind. Thy will be done m earth as it is in he .ven.
Have you come before at last ?— yo'i always came behind before. Mn thinks
I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him. Me thought T was
incarcerated beneath the mighty d^^ep. He only maketh me to dwell in
safety. Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that pro-
ceedeth out of the mouth of God. The word was made flesh, and dwelt
among us, and we beheld his glory. For I know that in me, that is, in my
flesh, dwelleth no good thing. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth
doing well. God alone is omniscient. The soldiers were pressed so closely
together, that they were in one another's way. Take heed that ye speak not
to Jacob. The Lacedemonians substituted iron instead of gold, f )r cur-
rency. He came down from the mountain. As the mountains are round
about Jerusalem, so the angel of the Lord encampcth around abo'nt them
that fear him. He recited his former calamities, to which was now .to be
added that he was the destroyer of the-man who had expiated hiai He
whom thou now hast, is not thy husband, in that saidst thou truly, i wish
you to believe that I would not willfully hurt a fly. I am glad that an
opportunity is afforded me for re()uiting your kindness. The T.ord'God
126 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul.
He will become a man.
0 ye banished seed be glad !
Christ our advocate is made :
Us to save, our flesh assumes,
Brother to our souls becomes.
1 know that my Redeemer lives,
And ever from the skies,
Looks down and watches all my dust
Till he shall bid it rise.
CHAPTER XXV.
PBCULIAR CONSTRUCTIONS. IDIOMS. INTRICACIES, AND SOLUTION OP
DIFFICULT SENTENCES, PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.
Rem. — As'iB a word in great demand, and as it is used as several parts of speech,
and to express various shades of meaning, it requires special notice. (For its con-
utruotion, see Part I., Chap. II., Model 10.)
Example 1. — " His arfrninent may be «immcd up as follows." As, in sentencea
like the above, is a covjunciive advnb, connecting the members of the sentence,
and modifying /oZ/oiZ'S Tbe pronoun it is almost invariably understood, in all such
constructions, after as; as, "*His argumentmay be summed up as it follows." This
construction of as must not, however, be confounded with that in which it follows
' such, used, as .oome suppose, as a relative pronoun ; as, " He made such statements
a« follow," J. e., he made guch statements as they are which follow.
Example 2. — " He is as true as the sun." The first as is an adverb, and modifies
ii-ue ; the second as is a connective adverb, and connects the members of the sen-
tence, is being understood.
Example .3.—" He thought as a sage." ^*, in this example, being used in the
sense of like, may be considered as a preposition; as, "He thought like a sage."
But, if any prefer it, the ellipsis may be supplied, and as becomes a conjunctive
adverb ; thus, " He thought as a sage thinks."
Example 4 " I adopted him as my heir." In this example, some suppose that
a« is a conjunction, connecting him and heir ; but. as it has precisely the sense of
for, it would be better to parse it as a preposition; as, "I adopted him /or my
he>r."
Example 5. — " He was eminent as a soldier." As. in this example, is used in the
sense of in-the-character-oj ; it is, therefore, a preposition.
Example 6.—" He was'ra^garded as accountable for all the consequtnces." This
sentence rendered plenary will read thus : He wasrpgarded as he would be regarded,
if hf were accountable for all the consequences. As, then, is a conjunctive adverb.
Example 7. — " I appreciate your recommendation a» having contributed greatly
to my success." Mr. Bailey explains this sentence as the one immediately prece-
ding. This may do ; yet it seems tons that as is used in the sense of the preposi-
tion for : as, I appreciate your recommendation fff>- having contributed to my suc-
cess. If thii- view is cnrrVi^t. as i? a rrepo.=itioni gnverriing the phrase thitt follows
it ; cr if try one shouM prpf.-r it. it may be regarded as governing havivg contrib
uttd, considered as a participial noun.
Example 8. — " He suffered and died to rederm Buch a rebel fl»me." Someconiid-
CONSTRUCTIVK ORAMMAR. 127
or OS, in this example, a proposition ; but this usage is not in harmonv with tha
prac^^.co of the best speakers and writers of the prefent age nJr canTi bl ubs«
tuted for OS unless we expunge suc/i; for it certainly would be harsh to sav He «lf'
fared and died to redeem ,such a rebi4 like me The tmfh f= T /' • •
inad^issable except by p'oetio licensr/whicT- as'' Mr^ailey' ver^ JuTtly r^mlrk:
leSe^n^^l^rnSLSir" ^ --^-^^ ^^-'^ be u^.ed ?nsCa?ora7S
0 wondrous love, to bleed and die,
To bear the cross and shame.
That guilty sinners such as I
Might plead his gracious name I
jf^'n s;^"^;;tc:it;:- ^^ritis.-^ "s^^^:;!^::^
It points out th^idennty of a general fact, thing, or circumst.ncef n compar son
with a connected fact or proposition. To gire its extensive etymology would be a
show of learning eanly made ; but to no useful purpose. In grammatiarZracter
his word. ,n its modern use. is an adjective, referring to the nouns fS£>^gway'
kind, degree, reason or othoT equivalent words; but. having a second re "rent To a
proposition for which the single word is the summary naml As signifies Ts a de-
ir""'(SerCar7;ut"Grf'' '''''' ''%f.r i': '''"'' ^"^ ''^ nouV Sers^ood aft
•f »!, (^e« harden s Grammar, page 155). The view of Mr. Cardell is curious and
If the reader can adopt it, ho would cut a long work short curious, ana,
Example 9.—" A great many horses wer* seen feeding on the prairies" *• A
riTt'fS^hnr''°r'"'r'-'' ^"°^ phrases is a great many, a good
hv L. ;.l/^^ . ^''^ frequent occurrence in colloquial language, and adopted
llZZl r^t "''^'"''J/ nevertheless, faulty, and should be Avoided. It would
etc The latter e,r' ^''^ "^"""'j "' " """^ ^""■'^ '^"'"^^f' «*"■' '^ Worses we e seen,
? w Ji/r "Pression, a good many, ,s, perhaps. m§re faulty than the former.
B .rra^iuL'^^i:' """T^ "°^ "'"^""^ '^ ^^y- y^rimany persons we e in attendance
But, admitting the construction.-tiow shall we di.p ,seof the words a.greatllTS^
ItTZr^,^. '/ "°.' " ^71' ^"'"''' °'" " '^""'^ P"-''"'- Nothing can be mo?e^dear
than that great and good have no constructive relation with the nouns persms^nl
horses, nor has a any grammatical affioity for them. But great evidentlv modifies
ZTv r' w '7;« r-' v"'^*^/'-' i« a secondary adjectivTumitS/Se'^a^ttiv:
ma^.y, nor would ,t be am.ss, if any prefer it. to call it an adverb -and as a also
mTnneraS;.'!""^ "^^ '' '^'' "^^ ''- ^^^ -"^^ ^e disposed ' 0??^ th^sat:
Some suppose an ellipsis of a preposition in such constructions ; as A creatmanv
0/ burses; then, according to this, 7nany assumes the character if a noun anTas
Zal-tT" "' ''' "'"'' ' "' *° ''''''^''- "•^'*' '^ «°-« instances". U useS'witJort
" For yet a many of your horsemen 'pear.
And gallop o'er the field."
Example 10. " When the merry bells ring round, f
And the jocund rebecks sound
To many a youth and many a maid
Dancing in the checkered shade."
The peculiarity of this construction consists of the construction *of the ind«finW.
article between the adjective many and the noun to whicjl it belongs and "^^^
agreement of many with a noun of the singular number. ^ Is here suodo^^/k
some to be used in a prepositional sense ; fs, Many of youth J^ 1^7 ma\d
llorne Tooke considers a, in such insUnces. to be a corruption of of. ThLL^lt
vunds, by corrupting the sound of of, as is frequently done, would become mZ/:;
Teluig^ala;.'^ '"°^ "•"''''° '"^ '''' "•'^^«- ^^^ "-"^ would'a^tSlwrL'SeTut'ia
equivalent to one dozen, o«e h«,.rfr.J^ eto KLe both ioL mav'h?'''''"?' '*'"
8pecifying adjective. See Chap, xvii., Remark 2 '"'''^ '"''^' may be parsed as a
128 A.NALYJiCAl.j CO>STKl. C'llVK A.NU
Exy»MPi,F, 12. — ■' The house is buildirp."' " Tho house is being built." As things
may he in a progrosfive unfinished state, v e evidentlj' need a firm of words to es-
pies it. iiijJ, for the loif t piirt, what is o; !lerl the progressive form ol thu v*rb,
■wt i > ;> a eou]l>in!iti(,n if the vecb io : '.' ;iril imporftct jnrtii'iple [prcot (]. does
thii" ;■!'•. lirHblv well; as, '■ he is wall;ifi{/-" " Trees are (/rowirKj," etc. But theie
are i" i:.« cnnttrui'tii'ns of this kind, whiih do nut express the sense so well; ns,
" Tb. i •n.'-p IS I'liildipc/," eip. The oVjectiori urged :,gninft this forra of expression,
is tli:i IS iuildin'j exj-restes aotinn, but the tubjeet /to(/«' dues not jeiforiu the ac-
tion, IS ni't the agent. liut regarding is ns the ci pula and building as the predicate,
then v« jridieate of house a progresfive stutc, which is all that is really deiiianded:
nor is tl if «n isolated rase in wbich an active fvrn) is used in a pos.-ive fense ; for
we fi'v. • '1 he discourse rends wfll." "The Ti>sewo(,d poHshen fnely.'' " Corn se//."f
high." t te. These are couven-fiit forms of expression, and are well autbentieated
by the p't'Ctice of the best writers and speaker".
The latter form of expressior, viz : *' The house is teiiiy built,'' is of recent origin.
It Di.iGi- i f first Hp{)eaiaDce sonio forty years since iu fouie of the newspaptr jour-
nals of ft I- day, and has sinie won fiT itxll much iuvor. ndtwithstendinc the re-
moriJirii) <•■ .- of gr.arainnriuiis gcierally. It must be admitted, nevertheless, that
the fiin. • f i-xpression is objectionable ; atd, in or'ier to S(e the full force of the
ohjictii'n, let us subject it to n s'riit an!il.\sis, and exsmine the 'iieaning of each
element pepfrately. Is Irivg hudt, as a C' mpoyi.d, cnnsfsts of three elements, viz :
t«, be.ih'j. ni;d luHt. Is (xpresse.v merely a stale of Uiiig, as existing now ; leivp
expie.'-ses an ui finished state of tho Vnbal denotement — that which is in projiresa;
7i\m\ Imilt, ns H perfect participle, expretses a finished state of the verba, oei.i.tement.
Jlenci we si*'- 'hat there if a vani of hainiony in the ii'eanirg of the elements of
iibieh this t xpiessiou is composed. Butalctus examine it in a logical point of
view. Ni w rt-garding is as the cupula and bci/'g built as the predicate, it is obvious
that a firi-htjd .Ma!e of the bouse is irnlicaied; since all would understand in such
exprcs-ioi s as " the house being built," that the woik i.« really finished.
Nfilhet form of exprcs'sion is entirely lieo from oljectii ns : but i otb aie now in
ui-e, ano :.re 'ike!.> tu continue so ; Act »e /.ivetiur pieference lo ibe foiuitr.
ExAMi'i.K IM.^" The k'liir gave me a gtnerous reward for eommiiting that bar-
baniis nei." O-inmittitnj lUit baibattus act inav be regarded as a substantive
pbriup. povern' d l>y ibe pre] o.'ititn /'or ; or. if a more ciiiieal aijaly.sis is desired,
coiiiwitli/",/ mav I'C regarded as a ] articpijil ii< uii, }:o^ern(d by the j re|.osiiion /w,
but, stiil iitaining its iifrimeu as a p.-^rfi' ip,e, ir ;;. v rns act in the objective case.
We prefer, hi wt ver, the former mode of u'spo^ilig of it, as it is more simple, and
the sense equal iy c'car. V lien, In f i • h ctu^struciions, the participial noun is liinii-
td by ihc o< finite article, the jrejosiiioB rf niusi be eonstrueci alter it; as, "The
king t ave me a generous rcwanf (o'r the eommitiing of that tarbarcus act." Both
forii 8 of expre^sioI i-re wi IJ authentieaied.
Ex A)iPi K t4.— " J liH niiiht r"^ beii g unknown, limited the sale of tho book."
Ti'ie author's leing m kiioii:it is a subsianti\e pLrase, and is the subject of the verb
Liintrd- "* b< ugl^ autlwr s is in the posse§sive ease, atd governed by being v»knowu,
und teiig uiikiiowti li.fcin ty itfell. is a participle, yet they sixfold nit be separated
inpar.-iij; In sui h ct nsiruct'ons thecoun is m metio'ee writu n without the pos-
sessixesi^i ; ns '■ The nutAo/' b. ing unknov»D," etc. Ihisprattiee suould, bcwevcr,
be ci'Tciiji'y avo'dt" "'
Exj»mpik la — ■• I have some recerection of his fafber'f being judge " Authorg
diflcr \»?_\ wide'v with r; sj eci io the ninrner ■ f disusing of tie wotd jrtdi'e in
thie SI rti n-*". Mr <■• (>i'ri Briv i ooLtiriids il ai jt/(fge is in ihe possessive iaM,[ut
ly aviM'Siti- n wi.h /////irr**. Dr Bullions says u ii: in the objeciive case; and A.r.
T UI li'f 1 1 ii'enct.s 'hilt 11 s a prt.ciiia'e i.ou ioative. Now. vhc is to dicide when
Doetii'-i d tajrrie? Ai all t\"nts. I bfve some re-oili eiii n of -omeibJUf; — wbat )8
tt ut S' II el* ing ? It i-^'oi a rvclkeii' u of a jvd(.'f siui| ly. ror of aty sn'gle word
in ii>- J bi; sr. Then w ■ at is ii ? Ji eviderty is, i//4-yi/i//<?'s biihg a judijc- AViiy
ii" I il en ) «r,-^ It US a fubnaniive jbicte 'ii ibe < I jeciive « ase, f:ovii ueil by the
) lepifHii 1 r.f. Ibe qoistif^n icw t. be decu e*., '.=, wbat form must a pronoun, u.'-ed
in .-will c< I tireoiioDS. assume? 1 etf. -gwii grf mu ai'ans oisagiet, uud piai tict is
iiot I ntfo:iti This will be i.oncni in she i' IIow^tk ixufoj'ies.
I .\.A»irj.ii 16 — •' lie vas n- t su i of iiif leir.g me." •' Its Icing me ne»=rs make
n. vji'fif lei < e in \our dttetn. ii ain n " 1 J <* pi tition assijuiea by l>r. LuiIh ns is,
'hat the 1 r> noun shoulii a^ suiue 'be ol jcoi\ e loi ii ; I u' Mr Butler lontt ids for its
I'tii'g a ji Lviii ate nou ioativ k,. lieie w-e aie-egain in a diieiLma, aLd our pen i^ sus-
^-"ONbnCv. CllVK OUAMilAK. ]-_'0
peTidod over ffar Taper in tremulous suspenpe, Tiotknowt»g where to light. 0, hap^
py thouubt! wc will split th«> difference, and say when such a phrase is the subject
of the verb, the pronoun should a$?nnie the subjective form ; but, when it is the 06-
^ect of a transitive verb or prcpogitior, it should assume the objective forto ; as,
"lie w^s not euro of its being meP' '"Its being /, needs make no difference in
your detcrtiiination." In asKuming this position, we may be wrong once, but there
IS a chance for the euineut authors whom we have ^ust mciiiioned to be wrong
iwice.
Example 17. — " To affect to be 11 Lord in one's closet, would bo a, romantic mad-
n«88."
In this exair.plt Mr. (roold Brown supposes I/trd to bo in the objective case after
/o fee, and that wj';(/;)css is in the rinmimvtivc after trould hi- H'itCi respect to the
premi.-^es from' which Mr. Brown has drawn this conclusion that Zjjrd is in the ob-
jeciive case, we aro not fuily informed. We can not, however, astree with him in
this partii'ular. What would be a romantic madness.^ To affect to be a Lord hi
one's clnset. Then this entire phrase is the subject of the verb would be, and inad-
t'.esn is ill the r.€ininativc case, predicated of it.
ExAMi'LB IS. — " She extolled the farmer's, as she called him, excellent under-
standiDk;." The construction of tbis sputence is laulty. It is a funeJameiital law of
oon^truetion, that all the part.s of a scn'enoe, should be made to harmorri/.e together.
The senteiici" siiou'd be construed thus: "She extolled the excellent understanding
of the tiirinor. as she called him.''
Example 19 —•'They took possession of the city." ** The city was taken posses-
fie>>i (•/ by thoiu.' *' lie was laughed at." Such expressions as " Tie eit.v wns ta-
ken po.-sossion of," " He was laugheif at." etc., are id.uuiatic. But as they give .^ome
varieiy and copiousness to language, they are deemed admissable. The peculiarity
consists io inaKiRg ttie obj«ct of a modifying element the subject of the verb in the
passive voice, au 1 the object of the transitive verb and the preposition are T^laced
i 1 pre.lication. [n such nxuree^fivvf us " Ife was Imigked at," " Tfi'<- husiiirssis to
be loeked to," etc., the verbs aro regarded as intransitive, though tbey have the
form of tlie pas>ive voice. When ttie preposition is thus thrown in predication,
some call it aiiadvero, but it would be better, perhaps, to parse tlie v;hjle as a com-
jmuni- verb.
KiAMi'i.K '2ii. — " I bad rather go " " I had as lief stay." " He had ou;L,ht to go."
The.-e and similar txpressi(ni8 are palpably erroneous, and should not be imii;;ted
by any who niiy wi,«h to speak and write the l^nglish language correctly, notwith-
standing they miiv have been use! by aiihors of soma celebrity s-e writers. What
kind of ft teiise is /m'/g^oaud /iads'ay? The pluperfect texse is formed by prelix-
ing fied to the pcifect participle; nor has Imve ir any of its variations aty gram-
maticil affinity lor .'iny part of the verb, e-xcept the perfect participle. The correct
graiumatical fo'-m of exiire.'-sion is .equally concise, ami more euphonious. Where,
then, is th« in<ftes.-ity for tbis innov.-iiiott which introduces irregularity and confu-
sion into the format on of the ten^e'' ? The following arc the correct expressions:
" I would rctiher go " " I ito/zWaslkf stay." " Veoiigkt to go."
Bxamplb :^1.— "If thou hjdst been h^re, my brother lutd not died."'
'' rIaS the deep earth her stores confined.
This heart Aarfi.fotCM sweet peace of mind.'' *
JLid (Utd and hud known express time po>terinr to the time of the tenses of tho
verbs wiifi which th jy nre a^S'1Ciateli ; tieneo they should be in the Fote/itial ii.xi-
perfect, in'^lead of the i'id'cative pluperfect; as the Fotcniiiil pluperfect is the ^amo
in point of time as the ludicdtive. fast. Better thus: '• If thou hudsi been her*-, loy
brother tpovld i\«t Juive dud.' etc. • This u^e of the Indicative pluperfect lor the
Potenti^ii poiperfect, IS a<lo\table by pietic license; but should not be imitated m
prose wtititij;. _
ExAMPLB 22.— " To confess the ir*ith, I was in f»ult." In this and similar ex-
ample-, the iiilinitive is s .id to be absolute, having, as is suppohcd, no word upon
which it can depend in constr 'ciion. But the infiriitive will irequet ily fimj a )i,o\ -
erpln-r won) by rrnnspo«iiig ibc .'■entenee, and eui.])l.Mng the phrase /'« ofdcr ; m>,
*' To cure the spirit of disconlent, let us coti^iricr hi w iilile v.e Oc-erv • ,'' i. e " L- I
«i8 em-uler bow litije we ut^^erve in order to cure the tpiiit of oitconten:." in
eoiue ca.xoB the plimso t/i (»/•«;?/• need not be tuppued; a.< ibj if-tiniiive will find a
governiiig word in the ei«uK( which succeeds 11, r.or is it ab^ol^Itl!y i;ecossary in the
■fc.ximpl'j Ju^t eneJ. There aio other <-oiiftMicticpn« in which tn.-re is an obvious
180 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
ellipsis, which, when sappliod, will furnish a governing word for the infinitivft ;
guch as the following : " // you will allow vie to confess the truth," etc.
The characteristic difference between a verb in the infinitive mode and a verb in
any other mode, is that Iho infinitive can not limit the affirmation to any particular
subject ; but, in all other respects, the infinitive is similar to all other verbs ; and,
should it be regarded as absolute, still it has the same governing power ov^ other
words that follow it, as if the word on which it depends were obvious.
Example 23. — " What if I do not go ?" In this example and similar coastruc-
tions, lohat belongs to an implenary member which may readily be inferred from
the sense of the construction ; as, What will be the cansequence if I go. (For con-
struction of what though, see Model 17, Part First.)
Example 24. — "Israel burned none sace Haiar." " I would to God that not
only thou, but also all that hear me this day, were both almost and altogether such
as I am, except these bonds." " Let high-born seraphs tune the lyre." Stvse and
except, in constructions like the above, are generally part^ed as prepositions, though
Dr. Webster says that they, as well as let, according to an idiom of our language,
are verbs in the imperative mode withoat a specified Tiommative. He also regards
but, when used in the sense of except, iis a verb in the imperative mode without a
specified nominative. That these wards weje e^ce used as verbs, is generally con-
ceded ; hence, if any should prefer parsing them as verbs, they have unquestion-
ably the right to do so. [See Models for Construction, Part I.]
Example 25. — "To the which ye are called." When tc/ae/t is limited by the
definite article, it is generally parsed as a noun. This construction is now obsolete.
ExAM\-LE 20.—" I can not but believe it." This sentence is incorrect, and must
be, as Mr. Bailey justly remarks, remodeled before it is paised. It may be ren-
dered thus : I can not do otherwise than believe it.
Example 27. — " The council met at half past four o'clock." Past, in this sen-
tence, is a preposition ; four may be parsed as a substitute for the fourth hour, and
in the objective case, governed hy past ; o' is a contraction of o« or of, and is a
preposition cennecting /o«'' and c/ocA.
Example '28. — " We." instead of ./. — By an idiom of our language, we is some-
times used instead of /. This may be done when the speaker or writer represents
in some sort a party or class. The monarch represents a nation or collection of na-
tions ; hence he says, " We charge you on allegiance to ourself." The preacher rep-
resents a certain denomination of Christians or a class of ministers who believe the
same doctrines; and hence he says, " We preach Christ and him crucified." The
editor generally represents a certain party, or he may have an associate editor ;
hence he says, " We admit the writer to onr columns, but do not hold ourself res-
ponsitde for his opinions." The author represents frequently, though somewhat in-
definitely, a very large class, not only embracing authors wiio write on similar sub-
jects, but also men in general; hence he says,
" Vice seen so oft, familiar with her face.
We first endure, then pity, then embrace,"
We, thus used, is a kind of mixture of plurality and unity ; hence self, in stead
ef selves, is annexed to the pronoun our; as, ourself, not ourselves. By the us© of
we instead of /, in instances l:ke the fiTegoing, the speaker or writer may avoid
egotism, which is generally offensive.
Example 29.—" The very chiefest apo.=tle."— Fery, as a modifier, generally lim-
its adjectives in iho positive degree; as. Very great; in which case, it expresses a
very high degree, but not the highest. But according to an idiom of the Greek
language, which admits of double superlatives, very sometime* limits adjectives in
the superlative degree, which is an advance on the superlative. Such e.xpre.'sions
Bts the most straitest sect, very chiefest, etc., ure not admissable, according to the'
rules of English syntax.
Very, used as an adjective, admits of the superlative degree, but never, perhaps,
of the comparative : as, " He is the veriest fool who ii-ites himself to spile his
neighbor."
Example .^0.—" The public are notified." Notijy means to malie known : but the
public are not made known ; but sometliing is made known to the public ; hence this
form of expression has been condemued by some eminent philologists. Guided by
the etyn-ologic»l import of the word, we too would decide against this use of it;
yet it is sanctioned by reputable usage in the United States. Most writers and
peakers associate with the noun public a plural verb j doubtless beoauee it is a noun
ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND 181
ef maltitude ; but does it not convey idea of unity ? It UDquesfloRably does; then
a singular verb is preferable, According to the principles of grammar, and is cer-
tainly more euphonious. " Th%public is more disposed to censure than to praise."
Addison.
EiABiPLB 31. — " What went ye out for to see? A man clothed in soft raimentT'
At the time of the translation of our verson of the Scriptures into tho English
language, the preposition for was frequently construed before the infinitive to ox-
presij a purpose or design. The Sttbstantive character of the infititive readily ad-
mits of this construction, though it is now obsolete, and only occasionally met with
in poetry ; as,
" Although yen flotMrish like the rose.
While in its branches green;
Your sparkling eyes in death muit close,
No mere fer to be seen."
The learner may be desirous to know what to do with /or in such ■constractions.
Son>e consider it a censtituent part of tho infinitive, others r»Rard it as an adverb,
and some, not without reason, would expunge it; but, if retained at all, it would be
better to parse it as a preposition, having the infinitive for its object.
Example 32. — " Oot/- tho signature of Fanny Fern." It is true that all writin,?
is over the signature ; but as the terra, in law, implies authority or indorsement, it
is generally said, " Given under my hand and seal." The use of tender, instead of
over, is generally adhered to by tho best writers, both of Europe and America.
Example 33. — " Ho preached the /arteraZ of bis friend." It would be better to
say. " He preached fhe fu/ieral eerinonof his friend."
E-V.AMi'LK 34; — " I care not w)/ic<Aer he goes or wJietJurhe stavs." The repeti-
tion of tchether in tho hitter clause ef the sentence is worse than useless. It
should ho, " I care not whether he goes cr stays."
Example 35 — " How do you do ?" In this example do becomes auxiliary to it-
self, and both words should be parsed as one. But, as do is not here used in its
proper sense, and is inelogan', it would be much better to nso tho concise and ap'
?ropriiite expression, " How are you '" or, " How is your health?"
Example 3R. — "Good morning." "Good evening." " ftood-bye." These and
eimilar expressions are tho cimmon forms of salutation, used both at the meeting
and parting of friends, and they generally express some emotion. They are re-
garded by some as interjections, but others consider them, or, at lea.st, some of
tliem, adverbs. But they are nil susceptible of a regular eonstrui-tion, if we sup-
ply the proper ellipsis ; as, '■ Good morning, i. e., I wish you ma^ have a good morn-
ing," or-' I wish a good morning may be to you." " Oood-bye,'' i. e., *' Ma// good
bo by yoH." OT " Ka^j a, good-bye ho _mit\i yon." To these maybe added Farewell,
Adieu, Welcome, etc. (Velcome, i. »., you are welcome; then welcome is an adjec-
tive belonging to you understood. Adieu And Farewell are expres.-r. e of a bless-
ing, and, as such, are in the nominative case to vuKf be; as, '* Moy an adieu, or
ilessirig be with you,'' etc.
Example 37.—" I that speak to ye." Though ye it the plural of thou, and in
the nomiuativo case, poets sometimes use it in the objective. As poets are sometimes
hard run to complete their syllabic measure, they are allowed a lioense in poetic
composition which is not admissable in proio ; but we see no sufficient reason fortha
uso of ye instead of you, the proper objective, especially in blank verse. It wou'd,
therefore, be better to say, " I that speak to voa."
Example 38. — *»In our midst-" As our uniformly denotes possession, and as
midst is indefinite as to locality, the construction has been objected to. The amsnd-
ment proposed, is, " //» f A'? tnidst of »s." But, as the former construction is conve-
nient, and sanctioned by authority of the highest grade; such, for instance, «s
George Bancroft and others, it will probably continue in use.
Example 39. — But if. But and if. '' B"t, if the modifying element is short, it
would be better to omit the comma ' " But sad. •/ that ferv«nt say in his heart,
my lord delayoth his ooming, and shall begin to beat the mcn-.«ervants and maid-
ens, and to eat and drink, and to be drunken, the lord of that servant will
come," etc.
When two or more conjunctions are construed in juxta position with each other,
they should not be mistaken for compound conjunctions; for each generally gives
a member to which it belongs. But, in the first example, belongs to the member,
it- vmuld be better to omit th' comma, oonvieQXmg H with something which preopd«ni.
132 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE ANI^
The member to which if belongs is obvioua. The sentence may be thus construed : .
But it would be better So omit the comma, if the modifying element is short.
In the second example, bvt belongs to the member, the lord of that se)-vant loill
come- /f belongs to the involved member. And is superfluous, having no corres-
ponding word in the o/jginal, nor is there any me'mbli to which it can belong.
Example 40. — "He rode almost to town,." The adverb alrjiost modifies the
phrase to toinn, and not rode, as is frequently, though Erroneously, supposed; for he-
did not almost ride, but did ride, and almost t» town,.
Example 41. — "Bonaparte had <Arce horses .y/iot under him." Some parse tliree
horsef shot under Mm as a substantive phrase, governed by had; but, if we fupply
the ellipsis, the constraeclion will be natural and easy ; &i, " Sonaparto had three
horses which were shot under him."
Example 42. — To boot. "I will give my l^orse for yours and ten dollars to
boot." To 6oot is purely Anglo-Saxon, and that which is given in barter to make
the value of the commodities equal ; henc« it is obviouslv a noun. Some have sup-
posed that the to is a preposition, used in the sense of for, and governs boot in the
objective ca^e ; as, " I will give you ton dollars /<>;• booti" But regarding to boot- as a
noun, as it means the sam« thing as ten dollars, it is in the objective case, put by
apposition with dollars; as, " I will give my horse for yours, and I will give you
ten dollars to boot.''
To boot is supposed by some te be an adverb, used in the sense of over, moreover,
or besid-es; and it must be admitted that it has something of an adverbial meaning ;.
nor is it an unusual thing for nouns to be used adverbially, 8.ich as denote time,
dir^ension, valuation, etc.
Ijg^REM. — As an idiom lea mode of speech peculiar to a languag"!, poets may be said
to have their idioms, or peculiarity of expression ; since they are rllowed, by poetic
liceute, to use modes of expression peculiar to poetic composition ; a",
" To save himself an^ household from amidst
A world devote to uaivcrsal wreck."
Devote is hero used for devoted, and manjr similar ca9«3 are met with in po-
etic composition.
CHAPTEIi XXVI.
THE GRAMMATICAL LANGUAGE OP. THE. BIBLE.
OuB translation of the Bible was made more than two hundred years-
»go, with great care, by scholars eminent as linguists, and as the transla-
tion was made under the authority of King James I., it is sometimes called
King James' Bible. It is not only &fait7tful and generally correcMransla-
tion from the original Hebrew and Greek languages, but, at the time it was
made, it was almost entirely free from grammatical errors. But, as the lan-
guage has been gradually improving for more than two hundred years, it
has, of course, undergone many changes , hence the Bible reader need not
be suprised to find grammatical rules, as they now exist, ocasionally viola-
ted ; as scarcely any change has been made in the grammatical language of
the Bible since its translation. A few of the changes which have taken
place win be briefly noticed in their appropriate classes.
1. Be is used in the Bible^ in the indicative present, for are ; as, "There
le some standing here," that is, there are 8ome standing here. " Get thee
behina me, Satan ; for thou s*¥orest not of the things that he of God," i. «.,
the thintrs that nrr. of God.
2. Those verbs that agree with the third person singular, formerly as-
sumed the termination th and eth instead of « or «s ; as, He seeth, for He
tees ; walketh for walks, readeth for reads, loveth for loves, etc.
3. Sereral verbs in the past tense have changed their form ; as, Bare for
hore, drave for drove, etc. (See List of Irregular Verbs.)
4. The verb vrist to think or imagine, and wot, to know, are now entire*
ly obsolete.
Wit is also obsolete, except ir> the infinitive, to introduce an explanation,
or enumeration of particulars ; as, " There are seven persons, to t/rit, four
men and throe women." In this sense, it means to say or to name ; hence
comes 7iaweZy ; as, "viz., four men and three women." 7b «*i occurs
several times in the Scriptures ; as, " And the man wondering at her, .held
his peace, to toit, whether the Lord had made his journey prosperous, or
not," *. «., to Jcnow whether the Lord had made his journey prosperous or
not-
TFtf, wo<, Mwand wist, seem to have one common origin, viz. the Anglo-
Saxon witan, which signifies to know, to imagint, to think, etc. Wit ap-
pears to be ihQ present and w»t the past tense, though wot was formerly
used in the present. Wit is the past tense of wis.
5. The preposition for was formerly used before the infinitive mode to
express a purpose or design ; as, " What went ye ont for t» see f A proph-
et?" (See Peculiar Constructions, Example 31.)
6. The pronouns his and her formerly represented nouns ef the neuter
gender instead of its ; as, " If the salt b^ve lost his savor." " On either
side of the river, was there the tree of life, which bare twelve manner of
fruits, and yielded her fruits every month." (Rev. xxii, 2.) The pronoun
his stands for salt, and should be its ; and h^r, in the last example, aftands
for tree ; and should be its.
7. The conjunctive form of the subjunctive mode was formerly used in
the perfect tense, which use is now discontinued ; as, " If the salt have lost
his savor," i. e-, if the salt has lost, etc.
8. The relative which is generally used in the Bible instead of who ; as,
^ Our father which art in heaven." This use of which was grammatical at
the time the Bible was translated.
9. Whoever is used instead of whoso and whosoever. Whichever h'as also
superseded whichsoever. Whichsoever is sometimes separated by an inter-
▼ening noun ; as, " On which side soever the king turned his eyee." Which-
ever should be parsed as a specifying adjective, notwithstanding it is divi-
ded ; as, " Whichsoever side," eto:
10. Pleonasms are frequently met with in- the Bible, which are seldom or
never used now ; as, " The sout that sinneth^ it shall die." " He that en-
tereth not by the door into the sheepfold,. but climbeth up by some other
way, the same is a fchief and Sk robber." " ffe that hath ears to hear, let
him hear what the spirit saith to the churches." In the first and second
examples, two nominatives are found in one clause, viz., the soul it shall
die. Me, the same is a thief and robber.. In the last example, some sup'
pose Tie to be in the nominative to a verb understood, and construe the sen-
tence thus : " He that hath ears, hath ears to hear, let him hoar." But itr.
appears clear to us that he should be him in the objective case, put by ap-
position with him in the latter end of the clause ; as, "Let him hear, him
that hath ears."
Such expressions as the which, like unto, how that, etc., are also pleon-
astic. The is now obsolete before which ; to or unto, after Hke, and hour
before that.
11; 00't4. •' G'd-fo now, ye rich men, weep and howl for your miseries
16>
184 ANALYTIOAX, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
that shall cotne upon you," The phrase go to now, which occurs frequeti't-
ly in the Bible, is obscure, and of difficult solution. The original, if liter-
ally translated, would be come now \ then to is excluded, and the sense be-
comes clear. Oo to, however, seems to have been used in the English lan-
guage formerly in exhortation and especially in scornful exhortation.
12. irom whence. "Remember, therefore, /rom w^enc« thou art fallen,
and repent." As the adverb whence is a kind of substitute {or from what
place or state, the use tifrom, before it, is unnecessary ; hence pleonastic.
jFrom, however, is still used before the adverbs hence and whence, and will
probably continue to be so used ; for remonstrance has almost ceased. In
parsing, the preposition /rom may be expunged, or parsed with the adverb,
as an adverbial phrase. From, is also sometimes used before far ; as, " He
came/r^ni/ar." In this case, an ellipsis may be supplied; as, He came
from afar country ; or from far may be parsed adverbially.
13. The article an was formerly construed before all words commencing
"with h ; as. An house. An hundred sheep. This use of an is now obso-
lete, except when h is silent, or the word to which it belongs is accented
on the second syllable. In reading the Bible, we frequently meet such ex-
pfessions as an hungered; as, "At that time Jesus went on the Sabbath
day through the corn ; and his disciples vi^tq an hungered," etc., Matt, xii., 1.
This form of expression is now obsolete ; the proper expression is, His dis-
ciples w«re hungry.
Exercises.
The Lerd knoweth the way of the righteous ; but the way of the ungodly
shall perish. Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto
God the things that be God's. Thy rod and thy staflF they shall comfort
me. When the unclean spirit has gone out of a man, he walketh through
dry places, seeking rest. Let us go to now, and build us a city. Let him
that thinketh he standetb, take heed lest he fall.
And, if ye will receive it, this is Elias which was for to come. Then
shall the kingdom of heaven be likened unto ten virgins, which took their
lamps; and went forth to meet the bridegroom.
For he wist* not. what to say ; for they were sore afraid. And Abimelecfe
said, I woj not who has done this thing. Genesis, xxi., 26. And he said
unto them, Draw out now and bear unto the governor of the feast, and
they bare it. John ii., 8. And they, fearing lest they should fall into the
quicksandSyi strake sail, and so were driven, Acts, xxvii., lY. And Uzzah
and Ahio, the sons of Abinadab, drav.e the new cart. 2 Samuel, vi., 3.
For all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth. Genesis vi., 12. From
that time forth began Jesus to show unto his disciples how that he must
go unto Jerusalem. Matthew xvi,, 21. By the which will, we are sanctified
through the ofiering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all. Hebrews x.,
10. And his sister stood afar off, to wit what would be done with him,
Exodus, xxi., 4.
•WiBt not,— Kjww kot.
OONST&m^XIVB QRAMMAB. 19t>
CHAPTER XXVII.
SYNTAX.
§ 1. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences.
A sentence is such an assemblage of words as affirms a fact.
No sentence or proposition can exist without an affirmation ;
no affirmation can be made without a subject and predicate ;
hence the subject and predicate are essential to the existence
of a sentence or proposition ; as, " God is eternal," When
the verb of a sentence is transitive, it has an object, either
expressed or obviously understood ; as', " Oassius loved Bru^
tus." (See Part I., Chapter 1.)
§ 2. The rules of Syntax are based upon three leading prin-
ciples, viz : Government, Concord or Agreement, and Po-
sition : »
Gmernment is that power which one word has in directing the Mode,
Tense or Case»of another word.
Comonl is the agreement of one word with another in gender, person^
number and case.
Position means the place which a word occupies in a sentence.
In the English language, which has but few inflections, the meaning of
a sentence depends much on the position of the words which it contains.
RULES OF SYJ^TAX WITH NOTES AND REMARKS.
RULE I.
The subject of the verb' must be in the nominative case ; as,
" John writes."
Note 1. — The infinitive mode, or part of a sentence, or a whole sentenoe, may be
the subject of a verb ; as, To see, is pleasant." " To die for one's country, is glo-
rious." *' That hot cUmatea shorten hurrxm, life, is reasonable to suppose."
Note 2. — When & pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must take the subjeotiva
form ; ns, /, thou, he, sh<'-, we, they, etc.
Rem. — It is the subject of the ^ntie verb, which must be in the nominative case ;
f»r the subject of the infinitive may be in the objective; as, <• When the noble Caasar
saw Am stab," that is, t» stab.
RULE IL
A noun or pronoun predicated of the subject, must be in the
nominative case; as, " Law is a rule of action." " Thou art
he." " It is J."
Rem. 1.— The reason of this rule is obvious : for the predicate nominative must b«
the snvie person or thin;^ as the Rubject— the nature of the construction precluding
• the poi^sibility of its being the object of a verb or preposition ; hence the necessity
of its being in the nominative case.,
Rem. 2.— There is no error more coramoo among the populace than that of pro4-
Icating an objective case of the subject ; such as, " I thought it was hitH, but it wal
136 • ANALTTBCiLL, ILLUiTRATlTB AlfD
not him.^' Some authors have been so far carried away by this erroneous practice,
that they have admitted it into their systems as a principle of grammar. ThiS)
however, should not bo referred to with any favoring notice.
RULE III.
A noun or pronoun used to identify another noun or pronoun,
is put bj apposition in the same case ; as, " Cicero, the orator.'*
" Solomon^ the son of David, wrote many proverbs,"
BxM. — Explanation and emphasis constitute the proper limits of apposition — be-
yond these, the annexed nouns or pronouas become pleonasms which should not be
tolerated. In the example alrlady given, the identifying nouns are used for expla-
nation; but in the following th« noun is merely repeated for emphasis f as, " Can
man, weak man, thy power defeat." (See Apendix, Art. Appo.)
RULE IV.
«
The possessive case, is governed by the word which it limits J
as, " John's book." " His being away from home, was a^great
disappointment." '
Rem. 1. — The possessive case is not unfrequently governed by a phrase, as in
Example 2. (For the formation of the possessive case, see Appendix, Art. Case.)
Rem. 2. — Nothing except some n#cessary modifying words, should ever be con-
Btmed between the possessive case and the word or phrase which it limits ; as, " She
extolled the /t/rmer's, as she called him, cxce/Ze«t understanding."
Rbm. 3.— No pronoun should tver have the possessive sign, but one, another and
ether, being used in the sense of nouns ; consequently adm^ of the sign.
RULE V.
The infinitive mode is governed by the word which it limits ;
as, "They wenf to «ee him." "She is eager to learn." "I
heard him my it. " He is learning to read.''
Rem. — The infinitive mode is sometimes saidto be absolute; as, " To confess the
truth, I was ia fault." (See Peculiar Constructions, Example 22.)
|BULE VL
The verb niust agree with its nominative in number and per-
son ; as, "Thou seest" "He sees." "I see:' "We see."
" Thou madest him a little lower than the angels, and crownedst
him with glory and honor."
Note 1. — Such nouns as have a singular form, but are obviously plural in sense,
take a plural verb ; as, " A hundred head of cattle were grizing on the side of the
mountain."
Note 2. — When a verb is construed between two nominatives of diflFerent num-
bers, it should agree with that which is more naturally the subject of the affirma-
tion ; as, " His vieat was locusts and wild honey."
Rem. — For the personal terminations* which the verb must assume in different
atyles, and to agree with nominatives of different persoDB and numbers, see Num-
ber and Person of the v^I».
CONSTRCCTIVS QRAMMAK.. 137
RULE VII.
Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by and,
must have verbs agreeing with them in the plural ; as, " Cato
and Plato were wise."
Note 1. — When tho constrnction ie such as to prevent the verb from affirming
CODJoiptly of the nominatives, it takes tho singular form ; as, " Truth, and not false-
hood, is destined to prevail." In this example, falsehood is nominative to a verb
understood.
Note 2. — When the nominativps, connected by and, denote the same person or
thing, tho verb should be singular ; &s, "The saint, the husband, and the father
pray^" " Why i» dust and ashes proud? As these nominatives denote but one
person, \here can be but one act performed at the same time'; hence the reason of
the note. Tho last example is supposed to be equivalent to, " Why is a human being
■proud?" That is, a being made of dust and ashes.
Note 3. — The adjunct which may limit tho nominative, should have no effect upon
the verb; as. " The side A, toith the side B and C, composes the triangle." "The
ship with all the crew, wi-s lost."
Rkm. — Some writers use aplural verb in such constructions. This practice, how-
ever, in our judgment, should not be imitated ; since it is neither supported by an-
^ogy nor good usage gener.-illy.
Note 4. — When nominates of (fj^ez-enf numbers are connected hy and, it would
be better to plaoo the plural next to the verb ; as, " The sun, moon, and stars admon-
ish UR of a superior and superintending power. »
Kkm. — AVhen and connects nominatives of different persons, cotirtesy generally
requires that thofrst person should be placed last in construction ; as, " You and /
did that work." The verb is said, in such Cfisos, to agree with the^rs?person rather
than the second, and with the second rather thuu tho third,
Note 5. — When nominatives, connected by apd, are limited by such specifying ad-
jectives as each, every, tho verb takes the singular form; as, " Every man, woman,
and child, was numbered."
RULE VIL
Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by or
or nor, must have verbs agreeing with them in the singular; as,
" John or James was ill."
Rem. 1. — In this example, John and James are taken separately, and while tho
predicate teas ill may be affirmed of either, it can not be athrmod of both conjoint-
ly; hence tho reason of the rule.
Hem. 2. — Some suppose that in some instances when the affirmation is negative,
the verb may bo plural; as, " Neither Moses, Lycurgus, nor Solon, were eminent as
orators."
Note 1. — When nominatives of different numbers aro connected by or or nor the
plural nominative should bo construed next to tho verb, with which the verb should
agree ; as, " Neither moon nor stiirs appear."
Note 2. — When or or nor connects nominatives of different persons, the verb
, should agree with tae one placed next to it ; as, " Thou or I am to blame."
Kem. — As each nominative, in such constructions, belongs to a verb, it is thought
to be better to use some other form of construction ; as. Either thou art to blame, or
I am ; or thus. Blame rests upon mo or ihec.
RULE IX.
When a verb agrees with the infinitive mode or part of a
sentence for its subject, it must be in the third person, singu-
lar ; as, " To die for one's country, is glorious." " To seek
God is wisdom."
138 AITALTriOAl, liXUOTRATITB AifD
Rem — It is obvious that the infinitive mode or part of a sentence, used as th»
subject of afBrniation, can not represent the speaker, nor can it be the subject of
address ; honce it is nccessarilj- limited to the third person; again, as such a phrase
or part of a sentence can represent but a sinyle idea, phirality is excluded, and the
verb agreeing with such a phrase must be in the singular j hence the reason of the
rule. V
Note. — If two guch phrases are connected by and, each representing a different
idea, the verb must be plural; as, " To eat and to play coastitute the chief employ-
ment of some."
RULE X.
A collective noun conveying idea of unity, generally has a
verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular ; as, " That
nation was once powerful ; but low it is feeble."
Rem. — A collective noun conveys idea of unity when th« individuals of which it
is criiuposed are represented as acting in one way, so that whatt^ver is affirmed of the
■whole may, with equal propriety, be aCrmed of each individual; as, " The commit-
tee was unanimous in its sentiments." Here perfect harmony of sentiment prevails,
and the mind contemplates committee as one entire whole ; but, if we say, The com-
' mittee were divided in their sentiments, this harmony of action ceases, and the
mind no longer contemplates committee as a unity, but ns a plurality ; since the in-
dividuals are represented as being divided, and acting in different ways. This idea
of plurality constitutes the basis of Rule XI.
RULE XI.
A collective noun conveying idea of plurality, generally has
a verb and pronoun in the plural ; as, " The committee wei'©
divided in their sentiments."
Rev. — The practice of writers, with regard to theie rales, is not uniform.
RULE xn.
Pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, number,
and person ; as, " John lost his knife," " He who studies, will
improve."
Note 1. — When the relative relates to antecedents of different persons, it may
agreeo with either; but when the agreement has been dc-tprmined, it must be con-
tinued throughout the sentence; as, "Thou art the Lord, loAo c/it/st choose Abraham,
and didst bring him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees."
Note 2. — When a pronoun relates to two or more antecedents in the singular,
connected by and, it must be in the plural; but, if its antecedents are connected by
or or nor, it must be in the singular.
Hem. i. — In most cases when a relative is preceded by two antecedents of differ-
ent persons, the construction may be advantageously altere«l ; as, '' I am the man
who commands you " — better thus, I who command you, am the man. [For con^
Btruetion of the relative, see Construction of Elements.)
Rem. 2. — When the relative refers to antecedents of different persons connected
' by a conjunction, it must agree in person with \h& first rather than the second, and
with the secowl rather than the third.
Rem. 3. — Pronouns which are applicable to persons may be applied to lower ant'
mats, and even to inanimate objects, when the SittTihuXes of rational creatures are at-
tributed to them ; as, " The lion said to the ass who had been hunting with /m;j."
" Night, sablo goddess, from her ebon throne descends."
Rem. 4. — The relative tcAicA should be used instead of who, after the names of
persons, when the e/iaraeter, and not the person, la referred to ; as, " Herod, which
c05fr6TRacnTB (jrammab. 139
'[word] is Ruothot name for cruelty." "S.d h a £ood writer, which is uU he pro-
lessM to be.
RULE XIII.
The indefinite article belongs to nouns in the singular num-
ber; as, " A man. An hour."
RULE XIV.
The definite article belongs to nouns of both* numbers ; as,
■^' The mun. The men."
Rem. — Though (he is called the definite article, it is not always competent of it-
self to point out tbo noun to which it belongs definitely. If I siiy, " The man has
tjo rae," man is not pointed out as a definite object to the luind of the hearer, unless
he had been the subject of a previous discourse. " TAe .5Zar appctrs." What si'ar?
The particular star about which wo have been discoursing. As this article does
not limit nouns in respect to number, and is incapable of pointin,;; out a Koun
definitely of itself, Mr. Cardoll has come to the conclusion that it is the most indefinite
of all the defining adjectives.
Note 1. — When several nouns aro connected in A regular construction, it is not
Rlways necessary to repeat the articla before oaoh; as, " The men, wo.nea, and chil-
dren suffered extremely."
Note 2. — But when nouns are joined in construction, without a close connectiou,
and common dependence, the article must bo repeated. The following sentence is
inaccurate : " She never considered the quality but merit of her visitors."
Note 3. — When two or more adjectives are assumed of the soma noun, tho article
should not be repeated ; as, " I saw a white and black calf." But, if the ndjectivos
are assumed of dif event nouns, the article should be repeated; as, " I saw a white
■nd-r. black calf." In tbo last example, I obviously saw two calves, the one ichite,
and the other black- But, in the first example, I saw but one calf, baving'Jwo col-
crs, white and black. (See OonstVuction of Article and Constructioa of Elements.)
RUXE XV.
Adjectives belong to neuns and pronouns;; ae, "A good man/'
*' She is handsome." '
Note I. — Su^h i-pecifying adjectives as are varied to express number, most agree
in number with tho roims to which they belo g ; &r This. that, these ■'•ni those.
Note 2. — This anii thiit, these and tho<^e are antithetical in their mea ing and ap-
plicarion ; </;is and these refer to the nearest persons or things, or ioiJi lueutioaed;
■akaA.'ikat and thusc to the more distant, or first mentioned ; as,
" Farewell, my friends ! farewell, my foes !
My peace with these, my love with those .'"
Note 3.— Specifying adjectives of the numerical kind, require noins to agree in
number; as, " 0«^7H(7fj." "Ten men." " Forty women-"
Rem.— A few nouns which have a singular form, but a plural sense.'aro authorized
exceptions to this note; as, "A hundred head of cattle." "Twenty sail of the
line," etc.
Note 4.— When two numerals precede a Noun, one singular and the other plural,
the plural should be placed next to the Noun ; as, "The first two books."
Rem. — This note is not important, since tho practice of good writers is nit
unifcrm./
Note 5.— Double comparatives aad superlatives should not bo used; nn, " Mors
better-" "Most ex'reniesi."
^ Note 6.— When two objects are compared, tho comparative degree .shou dbe used,-
♦Thia rule is not important, since there is nopoeeibility of violating it.
140 ANALTTICAL, ILtUSTRATITB AND
and Tf hen three or more, the superlative; as, "Mary is taller than her sister.""
" That is the tallest tree in the forest."
Rem. 1. — When the comparative is used, the two objects, or classes of objects,
compared, are represented as distinct from each other; as, " Wisdom is better than
gold."
Rem. 2. — When the superlative degree is used, the objects compared are repre-
sented as belonging to the same class ; if several classes are compared, they are rep-,
resented as included in some larger class; as, "Solomon was the wisest of the He-
brew kings." But, if we say SolomiVn was wiser than ihe Hebrew kings, it would
exclude \xim from ihzl class- of kings; consequently the expression is incorreet.
(See Butler's Grammar.)
Rem. 3. — Though* the: comparative degree is generally used in comparing two
objects or classes of objects, yet the superlative is sometimes us«d for the same
purpose.
Note 7. — This here and that there are useless pleonasms, and should be carefully
arolded by all who would cultivate good taste — to say nothing of grammar rules.
NoTK 8. — When two persons or things are spoken of, either or neither should be
used ; but, when we speak of more than two, any or none should be employed.
Note 9. — When an adjective is used as a substitute for an attribute and a namOi
it is generally plarci; as, " The good ar« rewarded; but the bad are punished."
RULE XVI.
Adjectives sometimos belong t© the infinitive mode, part of a
sentence, or a whole sentence; as, '■^ To see ii pleasant."
" Agreeable to- this, we read of names being blotted out of God' 9
hoohr
Quality may bt predicated of action ; hence
RULE XVIL
Adjectives are used to qualify the action of verbs, and to.
express the qualities of things in connection with the action
by which they are produced; as, "Open thine hand wide."'
" The eggs boil hard." " The trees look green."
Rbjic. It is not always easy for the learner to determine whether the modifying
werd is an adjective or an adverb. The following directions may be of some,
1. If the qualifying word can be changed to an adverbial element of the second
kjnd, it is an a^erb. if not, it is an adjective; as, " The trees look green." We can
not say that trees look in a green manner ; for that would represent the trees as pos-.
sessing the pawer if look in a particular way. Again, •' She walks graceful." Wo
can say she walks in a graceful manner ; hence graceful is an adverb, and should be
gracefully. ,...,. ,. , j • v *• i, i,
2. The qualifying word is an adjectivf if it can be placed in predication by sub-
stituting the verb to be for the verb employed ; as, " The rose smells sweet," i. e.
the rose is sweet. " He landed safe," i. e., he was safe when he landed.
RULE XVIIL
Participles refer to nouns or pronouns ; as, "I see him walhr
ing." " Mary having written the letter, mailed it."
RULE XIX.
The objeot of a transitive verb in the active voice, is put in
the objective, case ; as, " I. saw him whom you met."
CONSTRUCTIVI GRAMMAR. . 141
Rem. I. — As the nominative of the Transitive verb in the Passive voico, is the ob«
ject of the verb's action, it can have no other ; but a Passive verb (or a verb in the
Passive voice) frequently admits of a noun or a pronoun in predication ; as, "Wash-
ington was chosen commander-in-chief.'" " Harrison was elootod President." " He
was called John."
Rem. 2. — The Infinitive mode, part of a sentence, or a whole sentence, ia not un-
frequontly the object of a Transitive verb; as, "Boys love to play. ^' "Jesus said,
a certain man. planted a vineyard.'"
Rem. 3. — In order to prevent ambiguity, when a noun, or part of a sentence, is
the object of the verb, it should be placed after the verb ; but a pronoun may be
construed before it; as, "Him that is weak in the faith, receive ye."
Rbw. 4. — When the object of a Transitive verb in the Active voice is obvious, it
is frequently omitted ; as, "He ^'eads." "They write,'' etc.
Rem. 5. — When a Transitive verb in the Active voice takes a. personal and verbal
object, in changing it to the Passive voice, the personal, or indirect object is fre-
quently, but erroneously, made ihe nominative ; as, " They asked him a question."
Changed — " i/e was asKed a question by them.'' It should }3a, " A question was
asked him by them." (See Peculiar Constructions, Remark 1.)
RULE XX.
The object of a transitive participle must be in the objective
case ; as, " I saw a man beating his horse."
Rem. 1.— The Imperfect and Pluperfect [compound] can only govern an objective
case.
Rem. 2. — Participles which have a Passive signification, do not govern an ob-
jective case; such as, Being informed. Having been informed.
RULE XXL
The object of a preposition is put in the objective case ; as,
" Henry went with me."
Rem. 1. — The governing preposition is not unfrequently understood; as, "He
gave (to) me a book."
Rem. 2. — A participle or a part of a sentence is sometimes the object of a preposi-
tion ; as, " He mair^ins his family by writing." " The king gave me a generous
reward for comjiiitting that barbarous act-"
RULE XXIL
Conjunctions connect words of the same sort : as, " John
and James." " Grood and bad." " Q-racefully and rapidly^"
etc.
Rem. 1. — By words of tke same sort, is meant such words as belong to the same
parts of speech.
Rem. 2. — This rule should not be applied in parsing conjunctions which connect
sentences, nor is it absolutely necessary that it should be applied at all.
RULE XXIH.
Conjunction^conncct nouns and pronouns in the same case :
as, ''^ Henry and William obey their teacher." " They assist-
ed him and me" " David's and Jonathan's friendship."
IR
142 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE, AND
RULE XXIV.
Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like modes and
tenses ; as, " Kingdoms rise and fall."
Note 1. — When a conjunction connects verbs of different modes and tenses, the
nominative must be repeated ; as, " The attorney executed the deed, but he will
write no more."
Note 2. — Conjunctions connect verbs of the same form, and particles of the same
kind ; as, " Bid he not tell me his fault, and entreat me to forgive him ?" " Being
ridiculed and despised, he left the institution."
Kem. 1. — Note 1 is not regarded as important : since standard authors frequently
connect verbs ef different modes and tenses without repeating the nominative.
RULE XXV.
Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other ad-
verbs ; as, "He writes hadlyJ"
Rem. — By modification is meant the change of the meaning and not the form of
the word modified.
Note 1. — Two negatives, occurring in the same sentence, render it affirmative ; as,
"Nor did they not perceive their evil plight" — ihey did perceive their evil plight.
Note 2.^-Two negatives are often elegantly used to express an aflBrmation, one
being the prefix of a derivative word ; as, " Nor was he wwsuccessful." Unneces-
sary regatives should be avoided; as, " I don't know nothing about it." It should
be, " I know nothing about it," or " I do not know anything about it."
RULE XXVL
Euphony requires that the sign to of the infinitive should be
omitted when construed with the following verbs, viz. : hid^
dare, feel, make, let, hear, see, need, and their participles ; as,
" He bid me come." *' We felt the earth tremble.^' " I heard
him sjjeak," etc.
Note. — When these verbs are used in the Passive Voice, the si^n is used ; as,
" He was often heard to say."
Rem.— There is something so peculiar in the use of dare and need, that they de-
mand special attention. When dare is transitive, and means to challenge, it admits
of regular inflections, and the sign of the infinitive ,• as, " He dares not to enter the
list." But when it is intransitive, or means to have courage, or to ventvre, it
admits of no personal termination, and rejects the sign of the infinitive ; as,
^' 1 dare engage." " 1 dare not confess." " '&Q dare s&y ■" "Durst I venture to
deliver my own sentiments." "He dare not go without my permission.'' "But,
my lord, you dare not do either." When need is transitive, it is regular in all its
inflections, and admits of the sign of the Infinitive; as, •' He needs to be informed
of his duty." But, when it is intransitis'e, it admits of no personal termination,
and rejects the sign of the Infinitive; as, "Nobody need be afraid; he shall not
have scope." " I need not go any further." There is one more peculiarity of need
which is worthy of notice, viz., its being used, as some suppose, without a nomina-
tive either expressed or implied ; as, " There needs no prophet to tell us." " Where-
of here needs no act." It would, perhaps, be better, in such constructions, to refer
the verb to the indefinite pronoun it as its s.ibject.
RULE xxvn.
When an address is made, the name of the person or thing
CONSTRUCTIVE ORAMMAR. 148
addressed, is put in the nominative case independent ; as,
" Janieif I desire you to study."
Note. — A Noun may be in the nominative* ease independent, 1st. By direct ad-
dress; as, " Friends, a.^Rke." 2. By tzclamation; a,3, " Amaziiig grace" 3. By
pleonasm ; as, " The soul that sinneth, it shall die."
Kem. — Pleonasms are only admissible when great force and perspicuity are re-
quired. The pleonasm which arises from the use of the pronoun in the same mem-
ber with the noun which it represents, should generally be rejected ; as, " My banks
they are furnished with bees." " Riches they corrupt the mind."
RULE XXVIII.
A noun or pronoun, placed before a participle, and having no
verb to agree with it, is put in the nominative case absolute ; as,
" The sun having risen, we pursued our journey."
Kem. — Two things are necessary to cause a noun or pronoun to bo in the case
absolute, viz., itsposiiion before a participle, and its independence of any verb.
RULE XXIX.
Some verbs in the imperative mode have no nominative speci-
fied; as, " God said, let there be light, and there was light."
RULE XXX.
Prepositions point out the relation between their antecedent
and subsequent terms ; as, " He went to the city of New York.'''
RULE XXXL
Interjections have no dependent construction.
Rem. — The^last three rules may be used in parsing, or th«y may be omitted —
just as it ma; suit the taste of teachers.
RULES OF SYNTAX.
, RULE L
The subject of the verb must be in the nominative case ; as,
" John writes."
RULE II.
A noun or pronoun predicated of the subject, must be in the
nominative case; as, " Law is a rule of action."
RULE in.
A noun or pronoun used to identify another noun or pronoun,
*It would be better, perhape, to drop the word nominative, and simply say " The casi
IHDEPBWDENT."
144 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
is put by apposition in the same case ; as, " Cicero, the or
ator."
RULE IV.
The possessive case, is governed by the word which it limits ;
as, " JbAw's book." ^'' His being away from home, was a great
disappointment. ' '
RULE V.
The infinitive mode is governed by the word which it limits ;
as, "They went to see him."
RULE VL
The verb must agree with its nominative in .number and per-
son ; as, "Thou seest." "He sees." "We see," etc,
RULE VIL
Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by and,
must have verbs agreeing with them in the plural ; as, " Cato
and Pljito were wise."
RULE VIIL
Two or more nominatives in the singular, connected by or
or nor, must have verbs agreeing with them in the singular ; as,
" John or James was ill."
RULE IX.
When a verb agrees with the infinitive mode or part of a
sentence for its subject, it must be in the third person, singu-
lar ; as, " To die for one's country, is glorious."
RULE X.
A collective noun conveying idea of unity, generally has a
verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular ; as, " That
nation wUs once powerful ; but now it is feeble."
RULE XI.
A collective noun conveying idea of plurality, generally has
a verb and pronoun in the plural ; as, " The committee were
divided in their sentiments."
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 145
RULE Xfl.
Pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, number,
and person ; as, " John lost hk knife," " He who studies, will
improve."
RULE XIIL
The indefinite article belongs to nouns in the singular num-
ber ; as, " A man. An hour."
RULE XIV.
The definite article belongs to nouns of both numbers ; as,
" The man. The men."
RULE XV.
Adjectives belong to nouns and pronouns; as, " A good man."
" She is handsome.''
RULE XVI.
Adjectives sometimes belong to the infinitive mode, part of a
sentence, or a whole sentence; as, " Tb sec is pleasant.''
" Agreeable to this, we read of names being blotted out of Grod's
book."
Quality may be predicated of action ; hence
RULE XVII.
Adjectives are used to qualify the action of verbs, and to
express the qualities of things in connection with the action
by which they are produced; as, "Open thine hand wide."
" The eggs boil hard." -" The trees look green."
RULE XVIIL
Participles refer to nouns or^ pronouns ; as, "I see him walk-
ing."
RULE XIX.
The object of a transitive verb in the active voice, is put in
the objective case ; as, " I saw him whom you met."
RULE XX.
The objective of a transitive participle is put in the objective
case ; as, "I saw a man beating his horse."
146 AKAIiTTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
EtJLE XXI.
The object of a preposition is put in the objective case ; as,
" Henry went with me"
RULE XXII.
Conjunctions connect words of the same sort ; as, " John
and James- Crood and had," etc.
RULE xxin.
Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case ;
as, " Henry and William obey their teacher."
RULE XXIV.
Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like modes and
tenses; as, "Kingdoms rise and fall."
RULE XXV.
Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other ad-
verbs; as, " He writes badly."
RULE XXVI.
Euphony requires that the sign to of the infinitive should be
omitted when construed with the following verbs, viz. : bid, dare,
feel, make, let, hear, see, need, and their participles ; as, " He
bid me come." "We felt the earth tremble." "I heard him
speak," etc.
RULE XXVII.
When an address is made, the name of a person or thing ad-
dressed, is put in the nominative case independent ; as, " James,
I desire you to study."
RULE XXVIII.
A noun or pronoun, placed before a participle, and having
no verb to agree with it, nor word on which to depend, is put
in the nominative ease absolute ; as, " The sun having risen,
we pursued our journey."
RULE XXIX.
Some verbs in the imperative mode have no nominative speci-
fied; as, " God said, let ther€ be light, and there was light."
OONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAa. 147
RULE XXX.
Prepositions point out the relation between their antecedent
and subsequent terms ; as, " Henry went to the city of New
York:'
RULE XXXL
Interjections have no dependent construction.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
FALSE SYNTAX.
To BE CORRECTED BY RuLE L
Model. " Them that seek virtue shall surely find her." Them, in this
sentence, is used as the subject of the verb shall find ; but it has the ob-
jective form ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; — it should be in the nominative
case having the subjective form they, according to Rule 1.
Mim and I went T^ho said that? 3fe. Them told it. You and vs en-
joy many privileges. I thought you and them had become friends. Them
that sow in tears, shall reap in joy. Rer that was wise and prudent, nev-
er complains of adversity. Whom struck John ? Him. Him that studies
attentively, will improve very fast.
Br Rule IL
Model. *' Wh9m say ye that I am ?" Whorn^ in this sentence, is predi-
cated of the subject /; but it has the objective form ; it is, therefore, incor-
rect ; — it should be in the nominatire case, assuming the subjective form
who, according: to Rule 2. The sentence construed affirmatively would
read thus, Mtii do, say that I am who.
John was kim. It was them. I thought it was him. That lady is not
her. It was not me. Mary was not her. It was him. They knew it was
rm. They are them that testified of me. I thought it was them, though
it seems that it was him. I believe it was him who informed me, though
It may have been her ; for I am nnt certain whether it was him or her. Is
it him whom ye see coming ? Who tore this book ? Him. Are you cer-
tain that it was him ? It might have been her, though I believe it was
him. Be not afraid ; it is me.
By Rule IIL
Model. " It was Titus, the son of Vespasian, him who took Jerusalem."
Him, in this sentence, is in the objertive case, or has the objective form
whereas it identifies Titus in the nominative; it is therefore, incorrect and
should be he in the nominative, to agree in case with Titus, accordinc to
Rule 3.
He took it to be /. I knew that man to be lie. We adore the Divine
Being, He who sustains all things. I saw Martha and her sister, they that
148 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
you visited. It was John the Baptist, Tiim who preached repentance. I
have read a letter from my cousin, she that was here last winter. The
book is a present from my brother Richard, he who keeps the book store.
I am going to see my friends in the country, they that we met at the ferry.
By Rule IV.
Model. '■'■Jonathans love for David was very strong." In this sentence,
Jonathans limits love by denoting possession ; but is not in the possessive
case, or has not the possessive sign ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; an ai^ostro-
fhe should be inserted between n and s, or the possessive sign applied, ac-
cording to Rule IV.
Peters dog bit Johns finger. Those l)oys books are cleaner than that
girls book. His mnjestys dying without issue. They suffer for conscience
sake. She has a princes feather. The authors being scarce of friends de-
layed tlfe publication of the work.
By Rule VL
Model 1. " I walketh into the country." In this sentence, the verb loallc-
eth has the termination of the third i^erson, singular, solemn style ; where-
as it has a nominative of ih^ first person^ singular, which clears the verb
of all verbal or personal terminations ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; it should
be walk^ to agree in person with the nominative /, according to Rule VI.
Model 2. " The teachers who instructs me, labors faithfully." Instructs
has the termination of the third person, singular^ familiar style ; whereas
it has a nominative of ih& plural^ which clears the verb of personal termi-
nations ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; it should be instruct in the plural, to
agree with its nominative who, according to Rule VI.
Model 3. " The lady who occupies this house, le^tow many charities."
In this example, lestotc has the plural form, whereas it has a nominative
of the third 2)erson, singular, which requires the verb, in familiar style, to
assume s or es ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; it should be bestows to agree in
person and number with its nominative, lady, according to Rule VI.
I goeth. He art gone. I goes. I loveth. Thou loves. Thou write.
A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. Disappointments sinlcs the
heart of man, but the renewal of hope give consolation. The frequent
commission of sin harden men in it. I just shuts my eye and goes it. He
that trust in the Lord, will never be without a friend. The man and wo-
man that was present, being strangers to him, wondered at his conduct.
The wicked fieeth when no man pursue. The Lord loves the gates of Zion
more than all the cities of Judah.
Come away from the skies, my beloved arise,
And rejoice in the day thou wel'e born.
The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of na-
ture, are without limit.
Alas ! the joys that fortune bring.
Are trifling and decays ;
And those who minds the paltry things,
More trifling still than they.
0ON8TEU0TIVB OBAMMAR. 149
By Rcls VII.
Model. "Time and tide waits for no man." The verb waits, in this sen-
tence has the form of the third person singular, whereat it has two nomi-
natives connected by and; it is, therefore, incorrect; it should be vatt in
the plural, to agree with its Bominatiro tirm and tide, connected by and,
according to Rule VII.
John and James has returned. Ignorance and bigotry Jia$ Mtued this
cruelty. Jane and Eliza is at home. There it great force and beauty in
her style. America and Europe is three thousand miles distant from each
other. Gold and tin is both useful metals. Judges and senates have been
bought for gold. Esteem and love was never to be sold. Industry and
frugality leads to wealth. Our conversation and intercourse with the world
is, in several respects, an education for vice. My flesh and my heart fail-
eth. Their envy, their love, and their hatred, is now perished.
By Note 3.
Humility, with poor apparel, excel pride and vanity under Costly appa-
rel. The king, with the two houses of Parliament, constitute an excellent
form of government. The Central America, with her excellent captain
and a largo number of her crew and passengers, were lost.
By N»te 5.
F.very man and every beast that were left in the field, were destroyed
by the hail. Every twig and every drop of water, teem with life. Every
day and every hour were employed in strengthening the fortification.
Bt Rule VIII.
Mcdel. " Either wisdom or folly govern our conduct" The verb gotetn
has the plural form ; whereas its two nominatives in the singular are con-
nected by either or ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; it should be governs, in the
singular, to agree with its two nominatives, connected by or, according to
Rule VII.
John or Thomas Mve done this mischief. Envy or jealousy tBere the
cause of his misery. Extreme heat or cold are painful. It is difficult to
determine whether the poor man or miser most deserve pity. Neither im-
pudence, credulity, nor vanity, have ever been imputed to him. What the
heart or the imagination dictate, flows readily. Neither authority nor
analogy support such an opinion. The sense or drift of a proposition, often
depend upon a single letter.
Bt Notb 1.
Neither riches nor poverty was able to move him from from his stead-
fastness. Neither moon nor stars was seen for many days. Neither th#
hopes of reward nor the fear of punishment, was strong enough to induce
him to give up his evil habits.
Bt Notb 2.
Neither thou nor I art nufflcienk for these things. Neither yon nor ho
were prc!»ent. Either I or he am mistaken. Neither he nor thou was to
blame.
17
150 AWALTTJOAX, rUL06TRA,TIVB "'AWD ;
Bt Rclb IX.
Model. "To be good, are to be bappy." " Jr«, in this example, has a
plural form ; whereas it has a part of a sentence for its subject ; it is, there-
fore, incorrect ; it^hould be is in the singular, to agree with the part of a
sentence to he good, according to Rule IX.
To publish slanderous words are wrong and wick«d. Professing regard
and acting differently, discover a base raind. To die for one's country are
glorious. To seek happiness by violating the rights of another, are unjust.
To be blind are unfortunate. That the earth revolves on its own axis, are
generally admitted. That the planets are inhabited by intelligent creatures,
are reasonable to suppose.
Note under Rule IX.
To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek revenge,
is the duty of a Christian. To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk hum-
bly, is required of all men.
Br Rule X.
Model. " The herd were seen grazing." The verb irer-e seen has a col-
lective noun conveying idea of tinitj/ for its nominative ; but it has a plural
form ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; and should be wasieen in the singular, ac--
cording to Rule X.
The committee were unanimous. The nation were in habiliments of
mourning. The army vgre routed. The meeting were large, and contin-
ued two hours. A large company were in attendance. The association
meet annually. The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment.
By Rule XI.
Model " Blessed m the people that know the joyful sound." The verb
is has a collective noun conveying idea of plurality for its nominative ; but
has the singular form ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; it should be are in the
plural, to agree with its nommatWe people, accordiag to Rule XI.
My people doth not consider. The committee wai divided in it^ senti-
ments, and it has referred the business to the general meeting. The mul-
titude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. The peasantry goes bare-
foot ; and the middle sort makea use of wooden shoes. The council, being
divided in its sentiments, adjourned without coming to any conclusion. .
By Rule XII.
Model. " A roan's enemies are those of their own household." The pro-
noun their relates to an antecedent of the singular number ; but it \s plu-
ral ; then it is incorrect ; and should be his, in the lingular, to agree with
the antecedent i7iati, according to Rule XIL
Every one must take care of themseltes. There are twelve States f^Aoare
adjacent to the Atlantic. The nwa which I saw were tall and robust. Speak
to the men, and say to him. The wheel killed another man, who is the
sixth that have lost their life by this means.
constructive grammar. 151
♦ By Notb 3.
Mary and Eliza, who study her ICsgons well, make a very rapid pro-
ficiency. Henry or William, who trifles away their time, adrances very
slowly. Neither Arthur nor Thomas recites their lessoa well.
Bt Notes and Remarks under Ruli XV.
Th9S6 sort of goods is not fashionable. The«e sort of favors does real
injury. The pole is twenty /oof long. Sing the two first lines. James is
the tallest of the two. He is the viseroi the three. Eve was the fairest
of all her daughters. Socrates was wiser than the Grecian philosophers.
Solomon was the most wisest man. This is a more better way. Remove
them papers from the desk, and bring me them books. Observe them men.
Them l^ies are well dressed. This here is a very sweet apple. Do you
see that there men ? Will you take any of these two apples ? Neither of
those three men can write his name.
Bt Rule XVII and Remarks.
llo'lel " The rose smells sweetly ." In this example sweetly qOalifies the
action of the verb smells, and may be predicated of the subject rose ; but
it has the form of an adverb ; it is, therefore, inctrrect ; it should be ttceet,
an adjective, according to Rule XVII.
Open thine had xeidely. The eggs boil hardly. Tho fields look freshly
and gaily. The clay burns whitely. Apples boil softly. The lowering
clouds are moving glow. I fed badly. Those young ladies dance grace-
ful. She looks coldly. The fiver flows rapid. She sings sweet.
Br Rule XIX.
Model. " 5(5 that will not study, y«u must correct." In this sentence,
he is the object of the verb rmLst correct ; but it has the subjective form ;
then it is incorrect ; and should be him in the objective, according to Rule
XIX.
Who ye ignorantly worship, he declare I unto you. He and they we
know ; who are ye ? She that is negligent, reprove sharply. He that is
weak in the faith, receive ye. She I shall more readily forgive. Thou
only have I chosen. Who shall we send on this errand ? Whoever the
court favors is safe. Who ^o you think I saw the other day ? He accosts
whoever he meets. I he delights to save.
By Rule XXT.
Model, •' From he that is need)^, turn not away." Tho object of a prepo-
sition is put in the oijcciipg case ; he is the object of a preposition ; but not
in the objective case ; the sentence is, therefore, incorrect ; it should be him
in the objective, according to Rule XXI.
-JfTio did you walk with ? ' Ho gave the books to Jaraci and /. Between
you and /there is a great disparity of years. I lent tlie book to some one,
I know not to who. Does that boy know who he is speaking to? I bestow
my favors on whoever I will. Let not quarrels occur among ye.
152 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
NoTis UKDiB Rule XXIV. *
Notes 1 and 3.— That clergyman preached an excellent sermon, but will
* preach no more. He confessed bw fault, but would not promise amand-
ment.
Note undm Ruli XXV.
Model. ^^ Nobody d4^i care for me." In this sentence, two negatives are
employed to convey a negative meaning ; it is, therefore, incorrect ; it should
be, No one caret for me, according to Note 3, under Rule XXV.
I <i<m'tknow nothing about it I nevtr heard nobody say it. I ean^t do
w> better. He ain't got no more. In our neighborhood, nobody never
takes no newspapers.
By Rulb XXVI.
Model "He maketh me to lie down in green pastures." To lie, in this
sentence, is construed with the verb iii'iketh ; but the sign of the infinitive
is expressed ; the sentence is, therefore, incorrect; it should be, JfaiefA
Tne lie doten^ etc., according to Rule XXVI.
Bid him to go. Make tiie man to work. See the student tc read. Hear
him to recite. Feel the chair to move. lie only maketh me to dwell in
safety.
Bt Ruli XXVIII.
Model " Him having arrived, the army commenced its march." Ilim
Is placed before a participle, having no verb to agree with it ; but has the
objective form ; it- is, therefore incorrect ; it should be he in the norrdnative
absolute, according to Rule XXVIII.
' It was declared to me, him being being present. It was said of him
them being in the company. Her descending the ladder fell.
To BE CORRECTID BT THB "DiAORAM Oy TiMB."
" M^del " I finiihed my letter before the maid arrived." The verb^n-
ished is in the past tense ; whereas it is used in the prior of two pott
events; therefore the verb is incorrect; it should be had finished, in the
pluperfect, according to Figure 4 of the " Diagram of Time."
We hate studied our lessons yesterday. I never drank better water.
We came here to-day. Philosophers have made great discoveries last cen-
tury. I have endeavored during the last summer, to make myself thor-
oughly acquainted as possible with our systenj of common schools. After
I have quoted the text, you will see the application. After I visited Europe
I returned to America. The thief escaped before the goods were missed.
The world will have been destroyed by fire. John will complete his task
by the time appointed. The Houses of Congress will finish their business
by the 5th of May.
OONeTnUOTITS Gt&AiAtiJ^IU 163
CHAPTER XXIX.
MIBCSLLANBOnS REMARKS.
Rem. 1 — Verbs which in point of time relate to each other, should "ugroe in tenee ;
as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, erottct the Rubicon, and enters Italy with five thousand
men ; or we may say, Cscsar left Gaul, crossed the Rubicon, and entered Italy with
five thousand men. Now, as these verbs all relate to the same point of time, they
properly agree in tense, whether used in the present for greater vivacity of narra-
tive, or in the past tense to point out a period of time, which is entirely past. It
would, however, be incorrect to say, Caosar Left Gaul, erosies the Rubicon, and en-
tered Italy, etc., for they do not now agree in tense, though they refer to the same
period of time.
Rem. 2. — Verbs which do not refer to the same period of time, should be in differ-
ent tenses ;* hence the following sentence is incorrect, vis. : " The Lord fiath given,
and the Lord hath taken arpa%.^' It is obvious that these two verbs refer to different
periods of time ; since the act of giving was prior to that of taking away ; hence
these verbs should be in different tenses ; thus, the Lord yaoc, and he hath taken
*^^y- fip^"" ""
" Had he loved Spain more, and England less, he had never died on the scaf-
fold."—Hawkos' History of North Carolina, vol. I., page 67. This uso of the
tenses, though sanctioned by authority of the highest grade, is not philosophically
aconrate ; for, while had loved and had died are in the same tense, they do not re-
fer to the same period of time ; since the period of time pointed out by had loved
is necessarily prior to that pointed out by hud died ; then it would be more consis-
tent with the analogy of the language, if not quite so poetic, to vary the form of
expression a little; thus, Had he loved Spain more and England less, he would
never have died on the soafTold.
Rbm. 3.— As other words and phrases point out the relation of timo, % due regard
to these relations should be observed. " On tho morrow, because he would have
known the certainty whereof Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his
bands." The phrase on the morrow points out future time, and the verb would
have known, as indicated by the tense, refers to past time, but the time which the
verb is intended to point is not really past, but harmonizes with that indicated by
on the morrow ; hence tho verb is put in the wrong tense; it should be, On the mor-
row, because he would know, etc.
Rem. 4. — When\the infinitive is construed with such verbs as express desire, in-
tention, hope, or command, it should be put in tho pr€f:ent tense ; as, •' I intended to
vorite last week.
Rem. 6. — Future time may be pointed out by construing the Infinitive present
with the present tense of the verb to be; as, " Harrison is to be the next President."
" They are to be married to-morrow."
Rbm. 8. — When a comparison is instituted between a co-ordinato and a subordi-
nate clause, the two clauses should not be separated from each other by the Inter-
position of some other clause or phrase ; hence the following sentenee is not cor-
rectly construed ; as, " He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cynthio.
It should be, " He wan more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired."
Rem. 7. — When a sentence is commenced with either style, it should be eontinued
throughout the sentence. The following sentence, in this respect, is incorrect:
" You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song,
Till nobly rises emulous thy own."
Rem. 8. — The preposition at is generally construed before the names of villages
or small towns, and also before foreign cities, but in is generally construed before
large towns or cities of our own country ; as, " He resides at High Point." They
live in ifeto York."
»
♦It should not be forgotten that the potential pluperfect, with respect to time, is the
esme as the indicative past.
154 ANALrnOAL, ILLCeritAVIVB AND
Rem. 9. — Betwetn, Among. Betiaeen should be used to show tho relation
between two persons or thinfl;8, or between two cla»aea of pqrsona or things, and
among when more than two; as, " Between you and me, there is a groat disparity
•f years." " l*h«y w»Iked among the trees of the garden."
CHAPTER XXX.
EXERCISES IN FAL8K SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED.
Bbm.— In correcting tho following sentence?, tho learner must not limit himself
to the Rules, Notes, and Remarks of Syntax, but he must refer to tho Diagram o»
TiMB, to the Misoellanaous and General Remarks, to tho Peculiar Constructions
and Colloquial Inaccuracies.
Tho laws of Draco is said to have been written xvith human blood. His
bting at enmity with Caesar and Antony, were the cause of discord. The
property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wlioUy con-
sumed. Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, Y»laced in his
own hands. The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense
ocean, afifects the mind with sensations of astonishment I, Napoleon B«-
naparte, Consul of France, and Commander of the French forces at Tou-
logue, offers a reward of flva hundred francs for information concerning con-
spiracies against me. Me being in great haste, he consented. To love God
with all thy heart, are a divine command. Them that instruct others
should look well to themselves. Let ub to proceed. Who went with Jane
to church? Me. Still water runs deeply. Sing the two first stanzas.
Augustus, the Roman emperor, him, who succeeded Julius Ciesar, is various-
ly described by historians.
Oh ! Thou my voice inspire,
Who touched Jgaiah's hallowed lips with fire.
Sow rarely reasoii guides the stubborn choice I
Rule the bold hand, or prompt the suppliant voice.
I remember the family more than twenty years ago. I have been at Wash-
ington last June, where I saw General Andrew Jackson, he who is now
President. It was one cold evening in February, the snow had not yet
began to melt, when a man came reeling forth out of the village. Adams
and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July, 1826, were both sign-
ers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of Independence.
Yet so long as intemperance reigns, and you, my friend, refrain from lend-
ing your aid in opposition to it, just so long will the tears of women and
the moans of the orphan, continue; juFt so long will intemperance hang
bis blick escutcheon o'er the grave of talent and greatness, whiW the min-
ions ol Satan rejoioeth.
Not one in fifty of those who call themselves Deists, undarstand the na-
ture of the religion which they reject, lied he been instructed in the prin-
ciples of Christianity, he had been a betier man and a wiser legislator.
There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth them
under.«tanding. In the conduct of Parnunio, a mixture of wisdom and fol-
Iv were conspicuous. Henry and ^Villiaiii, who obey tlieir teacher, improves
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 155
fast. Tf T was Alexander, I would accept the terms ; so would T, if I was
Parmenio. After he visited Egypt, he went to Palestine. Th«ra students
•re very careless, nor is it probable that they will learn much. This here
book has been badly injured. Every town, every village, afid every house
wei^ burned. Either 1 or thou are in the wrong.
The blenting sheep with my complaints agree,
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee.
So great Eneas rushes to the fight.
Sprung from a god, and more than mortal bold,
Him fresh in youth, and me in arms grow old.
High hopes and ambitious views is a great enemy to tranquility. A too
great variety of studies dissipate and weaken the mind. There was much
spoke and wrote on the subject, but I have chose to suspend my decision.
Religion raises m«n above themselves ; irreligion sinks them beneath
brutes ; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck of earth ; this opens
for them a prospect to the skies. Temperance and exercise, howsoever little
they may be regarded, they are the bes^jneans of preserving health.
Each must answer for themselves. To despise others on account ol their
poverty, or to value ourselves on account of our wealth, are dispoBitions
hiRhly culpable.
When Parick appeared, Peter was for some time in doubt whether it
could be him or not. Socrates' wisdom have been the subject of many a
conversation. Is it him ? Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall
we most esteem?— he who strives to correct his scholars by prudent advice
and motives of honor, or ho who will lash them ieverely for not repeating
their lessons as they ought?
He had no master to instruct him ; he had read nothing but the writings
of Moses and the prophets, and had received no lessons from the Socrates',*
Plato's, and Confuscius's of the age.
Here rages force, bore tremble flight and fear.
Here stormed contention, and here fury frowned ;
The Cretan javelin reached him from afar,
And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car.
Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, tbey will
go out of themselves.
Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
Lies in three words — health, peace and competence.
The polite, accomplished libertine is but miserable amidst all his pleas-
ures ; the rude Laplander is happier than him.
They that honor me, them will I honor. He would not believe that hon-
esty was the best policy. A great mass of rocks thrown together with
wildness and eonfusion, strike the mind with more grandeur than if they
were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry. Take hand-
fuls of ashes and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in the sight of
Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust.
♦The pospesiivf c«ne muet not. be uped for the pinral number. In this quotation from
the letter* of Baron Haller to his daughter, the proper names should be plnralized like the
common nouns ; thus, " From the Socrates, Platos and Confuciuses '
166 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man ; this tends to excite
pride ; that disappointment. The king and tyrant are very different charac-
ters ; that rules bis people by his absolute will and power ; this by laws to
which they consent. Of whom wer» the articles bought ? of a grocer ; he
who resides near the Mansion House.
A second deluge learning thus o'errun,
And th« Monks finished what the Goths begun.
You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song,
Till nobly rises emulous thy own.
Thou, goddess-mother, with our sire comply,
If you submit, the thunderer stands appeased.
Self-love, the spring of action, moves the soul,
Reason's comparing balance rules the whole ;
Man, but for this, no action could attend,
Man, but for that, were active to no end.
Him with viny crown advancing,
Tirst to the lively pipe his hand addressed.
Thee sung, sweet bride, with unreposing lay,
Thou first at mom deplored, thou last at close of day.
He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it better.
The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have
looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing
their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore
their Creator. You thought it was her, but it was not her ; for I knew it
to be him. Whom do men say that I, the son of man, am. The Lord
whom I serve, is eternal. Though thou wast as huge as Atlas, thy efforts
would be vain. Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob. I shall walk
out, unless it rains. I will drown ; for no man shall help me. I will meet
thee there, if thee please.
Thou shouldst not take the matter in your own hands. Who did thou
walk with ? She. Who dares apologize for Pizarro — who is but another
name for rapacity ? The sincere is always esteemed. Joshua was chose to
be the leader of Israel in the room of Moses, who was not permitted to pass
over Jordan ; because he had, on one occasion, spoke unadvisedly. Though
the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your attention. Nobody
don't know nothing about it. This was the most unkindest cut of alL
He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabitants, lays waste their coun-
try, and depopulated the most flourishing towns and cities.
Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days cf my life, and
I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. Acquaint thyself with
God, if you would taste his works.
Admitted once to his embrace.
Thou shalt perceive that thou wert blind before ;
Thine eyes shall be instructed and thine heart.
Made pure, shall relish with divine delight,
Till then unfelt, what hands divine has wrought.
cp^f«TRUCTl^^: grammar.
157
CHAPTiER XXXI.
COLLOQUIAL I N A C CU R A. C I K 9 .
§1. As colloquial inaccuracies are too numerous and varied
to be comprehended by any syntactical rules, however copious,
we have thrown together some of these inaccuracies, and ar-
ranged the correct and the incorrect expressions in parallel
columns. Though these colloquial inaccuracies may vary, not
only in different States, but also in different sections of the
same State, yet they may nearly all be traced to three leading
sources,, via., 1. Unwarrantable contractions, 2. Redundant
words or Pleonastic expressions, and 8. Words badly chosen to
convey the tense intended.
§3.
CLASS I.
UNWARRANTABLE CONTRACTIONS.
Though some contractions are admissible in familiar style,-
yet they should be carefully avoided in all grave or solemn dis
course.
§5.
INCORRECT.
I, ai'nt well,
I havnt been out,
He isnt at home,
We werii't there,
I didnt do it,
I hadn't heart of it,
They've come, ,»
We're ready,
It's been warm,
She'd heard of it.
Til assist you,
I us'd to know it,
We're sisters.
The door tvatn't shut,
ffe's rich,
You'll see 'im, '
I've seeif' er,
I 'spos* 'tioill.
Lay 'em on the table,
I b'lieve it,
Gim me some broad,
CORRECT.
«
I am not well.
I have not been out.
He is not at home.
We were not there..
I did not do it,
I had not heard of it.
They have come.
We are ready.
It has been warm.
She had heard of it.
I will assist you.
I used to know it.
We are sisters.
The door was not shut.
He is rich. .
You will see him.
I have seen her.
I suppose it will.
Lay them on the table.
I believe it.
Give me some Sread.
18
168
AVAATTIOAL, IbLUST&AMTI X¥9
INOOBRBOT.
It's a'mott too late,
A greadeal too large,
A good' eel to short,
He haint none,
' Taint his,
You don't know '«7n,
(7aw'it he go ?
May n't she stay ?
You musnt do so,
John's got enough,
<;ORBBC».
It is almost too late.
A great deal (or much) too large.
Very much too short'.
He has none.
It is not his.
You do not know him.
Can he not go ?
May she not stay ?
You must not do so.
John has enough.
• CLASS II.
§ 4. EEDUNDANT WORDS OR PLIOHASTIO EXPRESSIONS:
INCORRECT.
I could not get to go,
The speaker rose wp.
He fell down,
Up above,
Up over,
Down under, •
He mentioned it over again,
I will replace it again.
They both met,
He cannot tell /or why.
Return back immediately,
He went, but soon came bAcJe
again,
Where shall I go to ?
You sheuld be ever constant
to the truth,
I saw no one ehe but him.
He was in here when I saw him
We entered into the cave,
I am a going.
He is a walking,
Can you go ? To he ture,
Whos' book is this here ?
D'ye see that thar nmn ?
We've done eat,
I've done said it,
But he's dons done it,
COBRBCT.
I could not go.
The speaker rose.
He fell.
Above.
Over.
Under.
He mentioned it again.
I will replace it.
They met.
He cannot tell why.
Return immediately.
He went, but soon returned.
*
Where shall I go ? _^
You should be constant to the
truth.
•I saw no one but him.
, He was here when I saw him.
We entered the cave.
I am going.
He is walking.
Can you go ? Surely.
Whose book is this ?
Do you see that man ?
W^e have eaten.
I have said it.
But he has done it.
OONSTRUCTIVa QRAMMAft.
159
IWOORRICT.
How do you do t
He has got enough,
John he said it,
Mary she went,
I saw her the Queen,
Them met 'z'm the preacher,
John his hand and pen,
Mary her bonnet,
l^ow go now,
The bees they have swarmed.
Bring me them there books,
CORRBOT.
How are you ?
He has enough.
John said it.
Mary went.
I saw the Queen.
They met the preacher.
John's hand and pen.
Mary's bonnet.
Now go.
The bees have swarmed.
Bring me those books.
CLASS III
§6.
WORPS BADLY CHOSEN.
INOOBRBCT.
I am dry,
Put out the candle,
Give me them books,
I reckon it will rain,
I guess it is enough,
I calculate to return.
You read right well,
I am monstrous glad to see you,
He has a heap of nfoney,
I want it badly,
A great territory,*
The Erricson is a big ship,*
Webster's large mind,*
Pour it in the glass,
Place it on the shelf.
It lies upon the desk,
He is to the store.
My mother learned me the
letters,
I want it right bad,
It rains hard,
A hard battle,
A little bit a sentence,
CORRBCT.
I am thirsty.
Extinguish the light.
Give me those books.
I think it will rain.
I think it is enough.
I intend (or purpose) to return.
Yo-u read very well.
I am very glad to see you.
He has much money.
I want it much.
A large territory.
The Erricson is a large ship.
Webster's great mind.
Pour it into the glass.
Place it upon the shelf.
It lies on the desk.
He is at the store.
My mother taught me the
letters.
I want it very much.
It rains fast.
A fierce battle,
A small sentence.
*Ghbat Is arppUcnble to ment*l measuroment ; larox to tire nrtfWJurement ef Bolifl.
bbOlet), and biq 16 abm* vlnnfttural Increase or •walling.
160
ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
INCORKEOT.
COH«EC».
My mother is very well.
I rose at T o'clock.
I'll do as well as I can.
You ought to go.
Are you all well ?
He is gone after the cows.
He came after his hat.
My mother is right well,
I got up at 7 o'clock,
I'll do as well as I kin,
You ones ought to go,
Are yous all well ?
He is gone atter his cows,
He came artcr his hat,
He is givine home, He is going home.
This is hisn and that is yottr'w, This is his and that is yours.
She took my.bcfok, and left She took mj book, and left hers.
hern,
I knoivd it was Am,
She" telVd me of it,
I seen her,
I hearn her,
I taken it to him,
You had better go.
I knew it was he.
She told me of it.
I saw her.
I heard her.
I took it to him.
You would do better to go.
They have got four sons, and They have four sons, and three
three datters,
They had a hard fit,
Thej fit a half an hour,
I feel mighty bad,
I feel sorter sick,
He alloived to me, and I
allowed to him.
He allowed to go last week,.
He lowed it would be better
for both,
I admired at you,
daughters.
They had a severe fight.
They fought half an hour.
I feel very unwell.
I feel a little sick.
He suggested (or said) to me, and
I said (or suggested) to him.
He intended«to go last week.
He supposed it would be better
for both.
I wonder at you.
He was made much on at town. He was made much of at town.
Walk in, to the fire.
He walked backward and for-
ward.
You and I think alike.
Oh ! how it burns.
The storm began to subside^.
He brought it.
I set out on my journey. '
He set his hat upon the table.
He is f^one up stars to look at He has gone up stairs to look at
the stairs, the stars.
Let us walk out, and take the Let us walk out and take the
fresh ar^ ' fresh air.
Walk into the five.
He walked hack and forth,
Me and you think alike,
Ouch ! how it burns,
The storm begun to subside,
,}lefotched it,
I sot out on my journey.
He sot his hat upon the table
COKSTaOOTCVE CniAirftiAR.
161
IN'COKRBCT.
Thoy air at home,
Ke came through the draw hairs,
Crocketfwas a great bar hunter,
Thar he stands,
IFho'll carry the girls to
church ?
Carry the horse to water,
He chau'8 his own tobacco,
I am tolerable well,
,\got sot back two years,
I can't mind it,
I will take some of thote mo-
lasses,*
He got hie hroughten up in this
here town,
She cant hear good,
I am a iceared of robbers,
The business would sut any one
who enjoys bad health,
I am very fond o^ tparrowgrusSy
I gee him last Monday,
No extras or vacations,
Why did you not bring the
plow? Because «/itf was not
repaired.
She dresses very neat,
We have no corporeal punish-
islmient here.
He rail againtt a snag,
As far as I am able to judge,
the book is well written.
They are at heme.
He came through the draw bars.
Crockett was a great bear hunter.
There he stands.
Who will accompany the girls
to church ?
Lead or ride the horse to water.
He chews his own tobacco.
I am tolerably wdl.
I was set back two y«arB.
I can not recollect it.
I will take some of the (or that)
molasses.
He was raised in this town.
She cannot hear well.
I am afraid of robbers.
The business would suit any one
who is in delicate health.
I am very fond of asparagus.
I saw him last Monday.
Neither extras nor vacations.
Why did you not bring the
plow ? Because it was not
repaired.
She dresses very neatly.
We have no corporal punish-
ment.
He got into a difficulty.
So far as 1 am able to judge,
the book is well written.
NEW ENfiLAND.
INCOkRBCT.
am
He is gwine home, and I am He is going home, and I
givine atter him, going after him.
Where s your daddy ? Where is your father ? •
Izzcnt that are line writ well ? Is not that line well written?
Where shall I dump my cart ? Where shall I unload my cart ?
0 ^Molasses is strictly eingular, being the eyrup which drains from Mnscarado SHgar
whllo cooling.
DUTCH.
aCOHRICT. CORBECT.
Have you any winegar for saU? Have you any vinegar for sale ?
He saw a warment run up a He saw a vermin run up a grape
grape wine in a wally, vine in the valley.
He sailed in a new wessel to He sailed in a new vessel to thd
the Vest Indies, West Indies.
He has been hard %t vorky He has been hard at work.
Give me de bitcher, Give me the pitcher.
Did you hear dat tundtr f Did you bear that thunder ?
J)i% is mine vife^ This is my wife.
He said he would grind it till He said ho would grind it by
Saturday night, Saturday evening.
He will finish it unttlnQxi week, He will finish it next week,
xsiss.
urcoKRBor. corrbct.
Not here the day ; gone till He is not here to-day ; he went
Pittsbufg, to Pittsburg.
Let u8 he after pairsing a wee Let us parse a little.
bity
Where did you loss it ? Where did you lose it ?
Don't heer ; can't sheer me, I disregard them; they cannot
scare me,
I am not slceern, I am not afraid.
Tote the wood to the river, Carry the wood to the river.
Is that jonr plunder, stranger ? Is that your baggage, sir ?
Whar you gwine ? Where are you going ?
Sese in cohoot with me. He is in partnership with mo.
Who hoped you to sell it ? Who helped you to sell it?
X'de rather have my hat as I had rather have my hat than
yourn, yours.
She is better as she was, She is better than she wag.
Rem.— If parents would take the paini to call ov«r the foregoing Colloquial In-
accuracie*, some once «r twice a week, and let their children correct them, it would
contribute •much towards forming aa elegant and perspicuous style. Teacheri
should not'fail to exereise their pupils regularly in correoting these and other in-
aoouracies.
mowntvown ski^wmak. 163
CHAPTER XXXII.
PUNCTUATION OB QNOMONOLOOT.
I 1. Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composi-
tion into sentences and phrases, in order to make the stops
which the sense of the sentiment, its grammatical construction,
and an accurate prohunciation require.
S 2. The principal stopa used to denote these pauses aro,
[]
Comma
>
Asterisks
Semicolen
>
Quotation
Colon
:
Brackets
Dash
—
Index
Parenth^ia
0
Ellipsis
Period
Asterisk
Interrogation
.?
Obelisk
Ex,c!amation
J
Double-dagger
Hyphen '
-
Paragraph
Caret
A
Section
Parallel
11
Brace
t
t
t
§
}
Punctuation is. a modern art. The ancients not only wrott without dis-
tinction of phrases, clauses, or ptriods, but also without distinction of
words. When this practice had ceased, thej? used cert«in points after each
word, which practice continued for a long time.
The time when the preient system of punctuation waa inrented, is not
definitely known ; but it is believed, as nothing is seen of the points now
used, in manuscripts and monumental inscriptions prerious to th« art of
printing, that it commenced with that art, or soon afttr. A.11 the gnomons,
or points, did not appear at once; but, a^ rcfihemeRt snd learning ad-
Tanctd, they gradually increased into the number now used.
The precise quantity assigned to each of th« points, or ^lonrons, can not
absolutely b« detertsined; for it must continually rary with tho sense of
the composition. But the relative quantity should be csrefully observed.
Regarding the quantity of the comma as one; the relative quantity of the
semicolon would be t7Co ; the co\on four ; and the period six or eight, Tha
art of applying these gnomons, or points, correctly, can only bert^quired hj
understanding the construction of a sentence scitntifically. The nearness '
•r remoteness of tho grammatical relations of its several parts must be
clearly apprehended, as well ae ths various positions which the elements of
the sentence may assume in its construction. Now, as this knowledge of
th« construction of a sentence is scientific, an4 as the proper application of
these points is based upon this knowledge, punctuation is a eciKNCB a»
V)4ll at an art.
Sinca ther« is a striking resemblance between the scienco of dialing and
that of punctuation, Mr. James Brown has properly denominated the
science which treats of tho characters used in punctuation, gnouvonoh'jy,
ABd th» characters themselvefthe calls fnom&m, or t/K/<w«. The gnomon,
164 .4KAMVK«d^ USLVMTBikWTS JMB
in dialing, is th« styl«, or pin, whose ghadow points out the hour of the day;
then, as the hands of a clock or wat«h point out the time marked upon
its face, they may, properly enough, be called gnomons. A gnomon, then,
seems to be a small part attached to larger ones, to point out the resultant
or combined effect of some more complicated parts or machinery. As.the
hands of a clock or watch ar« very inconsiderable, compared with the com-
plicated machinery, whose combined effect they point out, yet they are ex-
ceedingly useful ; so the characters, or gnomons, used in punctuation, or
gnomonology, arerery small, compared with the complicated and complex
nature of language or speech ; yet, as they, like the gnomon of the dial,
point out the sense of composition, they are of no ordinary importance in the
general structure of language. This importance demands a mare thorough
and scientific inrestigation than is gen«rally allowed it by writers ©n lan-
guagoi.
Comma.
Th« importance of the proper application of the comma will be clearly
percoivad from the investigation of a few examples. '' Verily I say unto
tlaee, to-day shalt thou be with ma in paradise." As the sentence is now
punctuated, the adverbial element to day limits the logical predicate sTialt
%e in paradise., by pointing out the time vihen qf the affirmation; and the
parson addrtssed would expect to realize thi fulfillment of the promise on
the same day on which it was made. But let us place the comma after the
elemeot tt-day, thus, Verily I say unto thee to-day., thou Shalt be with me
in paradise. To-day now modifles the verb say by pointing out the time
of the assertion m^de by the speaker, leaving the time of entering paradise
wholly indefinite. The former is the correct punctuation.
Again,
" Be thou, 0 my doer, open ever more,
To none be shut to honest or to poor."
This couplet is said to have been written over the door of a very benevo-
lent man, and, of course, as it is now punctuated, all who understand the
punctuation of the sentence, would expect to find an open door and a
hearty welcome. But, in process of time, the house is said to have fallen
into the hands of one whose character was exactly oppesite to that of its
former owner. The couplet was, however, permitted t© remain, and the
only alteration made was the removal ef the comma from its position at
the end of the first line, and its insertion after the word none. Thus :
"Be thou, 0 my door, open ever more
To none, be ehut to honeit or to poor."
This change, however small, hag entirely reversed the 'meaning of the sen-
tence ; as every one who studies the sentence attentively, must perceive
that the door is now open to none, and shut to honest or to poor. Mr.
Kirkham quetes an advertisement concerning one Mr. Tryen, who, for the
want of a single comma, is represented as having a short nose turned up
about six feet high. The advertisement is as fellows : " Tryon who es-
caped jail on Friday last,* is 22 years ei age, has sandy hair, light eyes,
thin visage, with a short nose turned up about six feet high," etc. Mr.
Kirkham relieves this poor feliow of this enormous nose, by inserting a
comma after the word up. But as important as the comma is in this and
many other cases, yet we think that Mr. T.'s nose may be considerably
shortened by a change in the constructidft. Thus : " Tryon who escaped
00N8TRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 166
jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, and is about six feet high, has sandy
hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up."
From what has been said, it will appear obvious to all who attentively
study this subject, that a thorough knowledge of the comtruction. of a sen-
tence is absolutely necessary to enable any one to apply these gnomons ac-
curately. Before entering upon an investigation of the Rules of Punctua-
tion, a few general principlea of the science are here premised :
, 1. When a modifying element is in juxta position with its super in the
regular order of construction, a comma is seldom admitted between them ;
us, " Hope is necessary in every condition of life." In this sentence, in
every condition limits the predicate is necessary^ and of life limits in every
c<?n(^/^i(7?i. ; hence the relation of the several parts is so intimate that no
comma can be used without injuring ihe sense. But, if we construe the sen-
tence thus, " In every condition of life, hope is necessary," a comma is
readily admissible at the place of constructive contact between the nub
and its sv})er ; for, as as the siLb now occupies the place of its super, the
intimancy of its connection is somewhat interrupted, and a comma is not
only admissible, but desirable ; for the importance of the mper entitles it
to emphasis, hence a short pause is necessary on approaching the super, in
order to attract attention, and to utter it with the force which its impor.
tance demands.
2. A comma is harmless, and consequently admissible, between any two
elements which have no constructive relation with each other; as, "Moses
led the children of Israel, from Egypt, to the borders of Canaan." In this
sentence, /ro??i ^QVpt has no constructive alfinity for the element <?/'/'»raeZ;
for the meaning is not o/ /srae/ from Egypt; but Moses led the children
from Egypt; nor has the element to the borders any constructive' connec-
tion with the element/rowj. Egypt ; hence a comma is harmless before and
xiierihQ Q\QvciQni from Egypt. But a comma is not admissible at any
other point. In such constructions, when the sentence is long, and one
of the elements complex, the comma may be advantageously used ; since it
would show that the parts separated have no constructive relation with
each other; is, "The ancients separated the corn from the ear, by causing
an ox to trample on the sheaves."
3. As secondary adjective elements can only limi,t a substantive element
indirectly through the medium of their primaries or supers, they must not
be separated from their supers by any point whatever; as, ''^ Pale red
lining." "A rery old man." But, as secondary adjective elements are
sometimes used as primary adjectives, they must be separated to prevent
ambiguity, even where the expression of a conjunction would be harsh, if
not inadmissible ; as, " That is the very old man whom we saw yesterday.
In this sentence, very is not intended to limit old, but man ; for it is not
intended to say that he is a very old mtin, but that he is the very man
whom we saw, and that very man is an old man.
4. When specifying adjectives are construed with qualifying adjectives,
they are not general]}' separated by a comma; since the expression of a
conjunction is inadmissible, though the use of the comma would be harm-
less, as the specifying adjective is not in juxta position with its super; as,
" That old man has lost his spectacles."
5. When two simjile elements are connected by a connective they do not
admit of a comma; a.s, " Henry and James icalk and talk ; but if the two
elements thus connected are complex^ a comma is admissible, and should,
generally, be used ; as, " The religion of the J>iblc, and the religionof Ma-
homet, are very different things." The reason of this is, and docs not 'con-
nect the words placed next to it as words ; but the connection is between
religion and religion, modified by their respective adjective elements.
19
166 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE, AND
6. When, in the natural order of construction, a subordinate clause is
united to the leading clause by a connectiye, which, when taken alon*, lim-
its the predicate of the leading clause, no gnomon is admissible ; as, " We
shall hear the news token the mail arrive*" "The thief had escaped be-
fore the goods were missed." But, if the connective which joins on the
subordinate clause, can not of itself limit the predicate of the leading clause,
not only a comma may be used, but in gome cases even a semicolon ; as,
"Eliza will improve, if she study." " I submitted ; for it was vain to re-
sist." But, in every case in which the subordinate clause usurps the place
of its super, or is construed between the parts of its super, it should be
separated by a comma, or commas, as the case may be ; as, " When he
comes, we shall hear the news," or. We ehall, when he comes, hear the news.
7. When a clause is used as the object of the verb in the leading clause,
they should not be separated by any gnomon whatever ; as, " Revelation tells
us hoio xne may become reconciled to God." " I fear / Jiave caught the
consumption."
Semicolon.
8. Since the semicolon connects the members of a compound sentence
as well as the comma, the learner will often find it difficult to determine
when to use the one or the other, notwithstanding the rules. He may be
told that he must use the semicolon when a longer pause than the comma
is necessary; but that throws but little light upon the subject ; for he may
still ask, why is a lon2;er pause necessary ? This question can only be
scientifically answered by telling him that a longer pause is necessary when
the members are used in such a manner as to render them emphatic.
Members are emphatic when used antithetically, or when they sustain a re-
lation to each other, &b premise and conclusion. (See Rule 3 and 4.)
Rem. — It will readily be pero«ived that most of the rules and remarks which fol-
low are based upon the principlM here premised ; and, that by studying both atten-
tively, a complete knowledge of the science and art of punctuation may be obtaiaed.
§ 3. These gnomons, indices, or points, may be divided into
two classes, viz. : such as separate parts of a sentence, and
those which separate entire sentences. The former are the
Comma, colon, semicolon, dash, and parenthesis. The latter
are the period, the interrogation, and the exclamation points.
THE COMMA.
§ 4. The comma is used to indicate the shortest pause — it is
also used to denote the ellipsis of some words.
The principal uses of the Comma are exhibited in the follow-
lowing rules and remarks :
RULE I.
When the construction of a simple sentence is interrupted
by an adjunct, loosely thrown between its parts, it must be
separated by a comma before and after it ; as, "^Law, iWtYs
most confined sense, is a rule of human action."*
*It would, perhaps, be better to exprees th« rul« thus, When a sub Is coiiitrued be-
tween the parts of its super, it should generally be separated by a comma befort and
after it.
OONSTRDCTIVB GRAMMAR. 16T
Rkk. — When a simple sentence is compact, and iti elements arranged in the nat-
ural order of, construction, no point is needed; as, "Hope is necessary in every
condition of life."
RULE II.
When the grammatical subject of a proposition is modified
by a subordinate clause, or by an adjunct considerably extend-
ed, the logical subject should be separated from the predicate
by a comma ; as, " He that acts wisely^ deserves praise," " The
intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise some
of the noblest virtues of the human soul."
Rkm. — If the modifying element is short, the comma may be omitted; as, " The
end of all things is at hand."
RULE in.
When, by transposition, the sub or inferior member occupies
the place of its super, it may be separated by a comma ; as,
*' By doing good to others j we secure the approbation of our own
conscience."
RULE IV.
The nominative case independent, and several of the interjec-
tions, are separated by commas, since they are not elements of
a sentence — consequently not closely connected ; as, " 3Iy son,
give me thy heart." "Xo, from their seats, the mountains leap."
Rbm. 1. — When the case independent is modified by an adjunct, the comma should
be placed after it; as, " John of Richmond, come forth."
Rkm- 2. — When a pronoun is joined with a noun i« making an address, it should
not be separated from the noun ; as, " Ye scenes dimnely fair, proclaim your Ma-
ker's wondrou5 pownr."
Rbm. 3. — Those interjections which express a very strong emotion or feeling, ar«
generally followed by an exclamation point; as, " Ah ! whither ehail I fly .'"
Rru. 4. — When a conjunction introduces an example, or is separated by some in-
tervening words or phrases, from the member to which it belongs, it should bo sepa-
rated by a comma ; at, "Propositions govern the objective case; at, I went to
church." '■■ For, for this cause, pay ye tribute also."
Rbm. b. — An adverb or perhaps any other word, thrown oflf from the member to
Trhieh it belongs, should be separated by a comma; as,
" Soon, borne on Time's most rapid wing,
Shall death command you to his bar."
Rem, 6. — Words of others repeated, but not as qaotations, and also words and
phrases repeated for emphasis, should be separated by a oommii : ns, " Thus sbalt
thou iay to the children of Israel) / AM hath sent me unto you." " Uappy, happy
happy, pair."
• RULE V.
The case absolute with the words depending on it, participles,
and adjectives with words depending on them, should be sepa-
rated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, *' Bonaparte
168 AlffALTTICAL, ILLUSTRATITE AND
being banished, peace was restored to Europe." '^His talents,
formed for great enterprises, could not fail to render him con-
spicuous."*
" Jesus, let all thy lovers shine,
Illustrious as the sun ;
And, Iright with 'borrow' d rays divine,
Their glorious circuit run."
Rem. 1. — When a participle immediately follows the word on which it depends,
taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should be omitted before the participle ; as,
" He being ridiculed, left the institution."
Rem. 2. — M' hen a participle without an adjunct, is separated from the word on
which it depends in construction, a comma is generally inserted before and after it;
as, " And when he was come near, he beheld the city, and wept over it, saying, if
thou had£t known," etc.
RULE VI.
When the relative is so closely connected with its antecedent,
that it will not admit of transposition, it should not be separa-
ted from it by a comma ; as, " Henry saw hats which he wanted."
The relative may be separated from its antecedent by a comma,
1. When its antecedent is used in a general sense ; as, " Man,
who is born of Avoman, is of few days, and full of trouble,"
2. When a word or phrase intervenes between it and its ante-
cedent ; as, " He gave me i\\e piece of an apple, which he found.""
3. When the relative clause is broken by the introduction of
a sub-member ; as, " An old clock, which, for fifty years, had
stood in a farmer's kitchen, suddenly stopped."
4. When the relative clause is involved, and readily admits
of transposition ; as, " The lady, whose house we occupy, bes-
tows many charities."
Rem. — In such examples as the last, the comma is frequently omitted before the
relative.
Observation. — Mr. Murray says " as the relative is a connective, it generally
admits of a comma before it;" but it should be borne in mind that the relative be-
longs to an adjective clause which limits the antecedent; then it is obvious it should
not be separated, except in such constructions as are mentioned under Rule VI.
RULE VII.
When a conjunction is understood in connecting words in
the same construction, its place should be supplied by a comma,
and also when the verb of a simple member is understood ; as,
" He is a pfot w, Ao?? £?sf man." "From law, arises security;
from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge," etc.
*Asthisrnle consists of three dlgtinft parte, the learner may quote that part which
applies directly to the case in question.
COKffiTRUOTIVB GRAMMAR. lOt
RULE VIII.
Three or more words occurring in the same construction, with
their conjunctions expressed or understood, should all be sepa-
rated by commas except the last ; as, " David was a brave, wise,
pious, and generous man."
Obsertation.— The reason why the last word is not separated, is becaust it is
either in juxta position with its super, or closes a sentence.
Rem. 1.'— If they are nominatives, writers generally separate tli» last also ; m,
" Ah ! what avails • « ♦ •
All that art, fortune, enterpriie, can bring,
If envs, scorn, remorse ot pricU, the bosom wring?"
Rem. 2.— When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should bo separated }
ns, " Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and
reve}ige, are the prime movers in public tiansactions.''
Rem. 3.— Words or phrases placed antithetically, should be separated by com-
mas ; as,
" Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dulU"
Rem. 4. — When the conjunction or joins on a word which expresses an altemativo
of words, and not of ideas, it should be separated by a comma; as, " He saw ft
largo hctij, or g%ilf." \
Rem. i).— When /jArff«c« are connected by conjunctions, they are regulated by
the same rules as single words.
RULE IX.
When any tense of the verb To Be is followed by a verb in
the infinitive mode, which, by transposition, may be made the
nominative case to it, the former is generally separated from
the latter verb by a comma; as, ''The best preservative of
health is, to he temperate,"
Rem. 1. — The inf nitive mode absolute with the words depending on it, should be
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma; as, ** To correct the spirit of
discontent, let us consider how little wo deserve."
Rem. 2. — When the infinitive mode or a part of a sentence is used as tho subject
of the verb, it is generally separated from it by a comma ; as, " To die for omft
country, is glorious."
Rem. 3.— When a verb in the infinitive mode is separated from the word on whieh
it depends in construction, a comma is generally placed before it ; as,
" Oh ! for a glance of heavenly day.
To take thie stubborn heart away."
RULE X.
Modifying words and phrases, as, Iwwever, nay, hence, he-
sides, in sliort, finally, formerly, etc., are usually separated by
a comma ; as, " It is, however, the task of criticism to estab-
lish principles."
1*70 ANALTTIOAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
RULE XL
The members of a compound sentence, whether successive or
involved, should be separated by commas ; as, " The boy wound-
ed the old bird, and stole the young ones." " Providence has,
I think, displayed a tenderness for mankind."
Rek. 1. — When the members are connsoted by conjunctive adverbs, the comma
Is generally omitted ; as, " We heard the news before the messenger arrived."
Rem. 2. — In comparative sentences whose members are short, the comma should
not bs used; as, " Wisdom is better than gold."
RULE XIL
The case in apposition with its adjunct, should be separated
from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, "Paul, the great
apostle of the Grentiles, was eminent for his Christian zeal."
Rkic. — If the case in apposition is unaccompanied by any modifying word or
phrase, no comma should be used; as, " The patriarch Joseph was an illustrious ex-
ample of true piety."
SEMICOLON.
§ 6. The semicolon (;) requires a longer pause than the com-
ma ; the proportion being as one to two.
The semicolon is placed between the clauses of a period which
are less closely connected than such as are separated by commas.
RULE L
When the first division completes a proposition, so as to have
no dependence on what follows, but the following clause has a
dependence on the preceding, the two parts are separated by a
semicolon ; as, " The one has all that perfection requires, and
more, but the excess may be easily retrenched ; the other wants
the qualities requisite to excellence."
Rem. — In general then, the semicolon separates the divisions of a sentence, when
the latter division has a dependence on the former, whether the former has a de-
pendence on the latter or not.
RULE II.
When several members of a sentence have a dependence on
each other, by means of a substitute for the same principal
word, and tho clauses, in other respects, constitute direct pro-
positions, the semicolon may be used ; as, " Wisdom hath build-
ed her house ; she hath hewn out her seven pillars ; she hath
killed her beasts ; she hath mingled her wine ; she hath also
furnished her table." — Proverbs ix.
CONSTRUCTIVE OBAMMAR. 171
RULE III.
A semicolon is generally used to separate premises and con-
clusions ; as, " Man is mortal ; therefore he must die." " Ccesar
deserved death ; for he was a tyrant."
RULE IV.
The semicolon is generally used to separate an example, in
troduced to illustrate a rule or proposition ; as, " The subject
of a proposition must be in the nominative case ; as, Washing^
ton was President.
Rkm — The above, with some variation, are the rules generally given by punota-
isU, to direct the learner to a proper use of the semicolon.
It will be seen, however, that the principles on which the proper application of
this point is based, are found in the perception of a resemblance and con'raat.
When a new subject is introduced in the sub -member, of which something limilar
is predicated, to that of the super member, the idea is that of resemblance; and
the eemicolen should be used to separate the members; as, " As wood is to fire ; to
ig a contentious man to the production of strife,"
But, when a now subject is introduced in (he sub-member, and of which some-
thing antithetical is affirmed, to what is aflBrmed in the super-roember, the idea is
that of antithesis or contrast; consequently the members of the sentence should be
separated by a semicolon ; as, " The wisn shall inherit glory; hut shame shall be
the proTnotion of fools." Hence the following rule will, in most cases, be sufficient
to direct the learner to a proper application of this gnomon, or point.
RULE V.
"When resemblanee or contrast is affirmed in the sub-member,
the members should be separated by a semicolon ; as, " Heaven
is the region of gentleness and friendship ; but hell of fierceness
and animosity." " The wicked flee when no man pursueth ;
hut the righteous Qxe as bold as alien." '■^ Eliza h beautiful;
and so is Mary.''
COLON.
§ 6. The time generally given to this point (:) is double that
of the semicolon.
RULE I.
When the things affirmed in the latter or »ub-member, are
adapted to the condition of the things mentioned in the former,
or super-member, the colon may be used to separate the mem-
bers ; as, " Man is a great sinner : Christ is a great Saviour."
RULE IL
When that -which is affirmed in the latter, or sub-member, is
illustrative or confirmatory of what is affirmed in the former,
179 AWALYWOAL, ItLUSTBATIVB AND
or super-member, the colon may be used ; as, " Man can not ar-
rive at a point here, which he cannot pass : he is to advarice in
the next world." " Mr. Gray vras followed by Mr. Erskine,
who spake thus : I rise to second the motion of my honorable
friend."
Rbm. 1. — When the eolon is used, the comneotive is generally omitted.
RxM. 2. — Our best writers bave frequently confounded the colon and semicolon.
The truth is, the colon is nearly obso lete ; consequeDtly but sparingly used by tit
best writers of the present age. (See Dr. Webster's Improved Grammar, page 164.)
RxH. 3. — The practice of writers is far from being uniform with regard to ihe
point to be nsed in introducing direct quotations. Some use the colon, some the
aemicolon, and others the comma.
PERIOD.
§ 7. The period, or full point (.), marks a completion of the
sense, a cadence of the voice, and the longest pause used be-
tween sentences. It closes a discourse, also, or marks the com-
pletion of a subject, or section.
Bzx. 1. — And it is also used in abbreyiating words, and is placed after initialg
when used alone; as, " £ev. Prest. Crayen, j).I)." " C- F. Deema, J).I)." "Hon
David L. Swain, LL.D."
THE DASH AND PARENTHESIS.
§ 8. The dash ( — ) is used where there is a significant pause,
an unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence is
' left unfinished ; as, "If thou art he — but 0, how fallen!
The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis j as, " The
colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the town in which they
had been so wretched."
RVk. — When the dash is used in conneotioD with another gnomon, or point,!
in<ireases the quantity of the pause.
§ 9. The parenthesis ( ) is used to inclose a part of a sentence
not necessary to the construction, but in some way explanatory
of the meaning of the sentence ; as, " Consider (and may the
consideration sink deep in yout hearts) the fatal consequences
of a wicked life."
J^Rbii. — The paienthesis is now but little n«ed, tho comiaa and dash having nearly
rapplanted it
INTERROGATION POINT.
§ 10. The interrogation point (?) is used, when a question is
asked ; as, " Do brutes reason ?"
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. IVS
Rbm. 1. — When two interrogative members are closely connected, the com?no I«
generally used after the first, and the interrogative point at the close of the last
teember; as,
" When shall I reach that happy j?Jace,
And be for ever blest ?"
Keu. 2. — When it is only said a question is asked, the interrogative point should
not be used : as, " The Cyprians asked mc why I icepi.
Observation. — The quantity of this point is very indefinite; it sometimes has
the quantity of the semicolon; sometimes the colon, and at others of the period.
EXCLAMATION POINT.
§ 11. The exclamation point (!) is used after an exclamative
sentence ; as, " How vain are all things here below !" It is also
used after phrases expressive of emotion ; as, " 0, happiness !
our being's end and aim !"
BRACKETS.
§ 12. Brackets [ ] are used when a word or phrase is intro-
duced for explanation ; as, " He [the Professor] explained it."
QUOTATION MARKS.
§ 13. Quotation marks (" ") are used to include a passage
taken verbatim from some other author ; as, He said " I relin-
quish my claim."
Rev. — A quotation contained within another, shocld be distinguished by two
single commas [' ']; as, "Always remember this ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' "
THE CARET.
§ 14'. The caret (a) is used in writing to show that some let-
lies
ter, word, or phrase, has been omitted ; as, " The book^upon
the table,"
THE HYPHEN.
§ 15. The hyphen (-) is used to separate the parts of a com-
pound word ; as, "Book.-binder." When placed at the end of
a line, it shoAvs that a word is divided, the remaining part being
carried to the next line.
THE ELLIPSIS.
§ 16. The ellipsis ( ) is used to denote the omission of
certain letters or words ; as, Y k, K g."
20
174 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
THE INDEX.
§ 17. Tire index (gST') points to some remarkable passage,
THE PARAGRAPH,
§ 18. The paragraph (*|), which is not much used except in
the Bible, denotes the beginning of a new subject.
THE SECTION.
§ 19. The section (§) marks the small divisions of a book or
chapter.
THE DIURESIS.
§ 20. The diaeresis ( .. ) placed over the latter of two vowels,
show that they do not form a diphthong ; as, *' Aerial." The
diaeresis here shows that this word is not to be pronounced erial.
ACCENT.
§ 21. The accent is a character used to point out the accent-
ed syllable of a word, whether long or short. Our ancestors
borrowed three of these characters from the Greek language,
viz., the acute ('), the grave {^), and the circumflex (a). The
acute points out the rise of voice ; the grave, the fall ; and the
circumflex unites both of these in one, and marks an undulation
of the voice. The breve (^ is placed over an accented syllable
in poetry ; and the dash ( — ) is used over accented syllables ; as,
" With rav | ished ears,
Th6 mon j arch hears."
THE APOSTROPHE.
§22. The apostrophe (') is used as a sign of the possessive
case, and also to mark the omission of a letter in the syncopa-
tion of words ; as, " This is John's book." " JE'en now where
Alpine solitudes ascend."
THE BRACE.
§ 23, The brace (f) is used to connect or point out the three
lines of poetry which form a triplet. It is also used to connect
•everal words with one common term ; as,
"James Anderson, "j
"W. L. Smith, y Managers."
^' Dr. W. F. Connolly, j
CONSTRUCTIVE ORAMMAR. l76
§ 24. Three asterisks (***) show that some indelicate express-
ion has been omitted, or that there is some defect in the man-
uscript.
§ 25. The asterisk (*), the obelisk (f), the double-dagger (;):),
and the p*i-allels (||), are onlj used as foot-notes, or references
to the margin.
CHAPTEE XXXIII,
FALSE PUNCTUATION.
Rem. — In punctuating the sentences in the following exercises, the pupils should
not only place the proper points which are omitted, but, also, remove those which
have been improperly inserted. But one Model is given, which, if attentively stud-
ied, will, perhaps, be a sufl5cicnt guide to direct in all cases — at least, so far as it res-
pects pointing out the error, and applying the appropriate rule or remark.
Model. " The tutor who instructs me in the science of grammar is emi-
nent, as a teach«r."
A comma should be inserted before the predicate is emintnt, separating
it Irom the logical subject, according to Rule II. The comma inserted be-
fore as, is improperly used ; because as is a preposition, used in the sense
ot in tlie character of, and, as such, it shows the relation between the words
eminent and teacher, excluding any point whatever.
The philosophic student maj' inquire for the reason of the comma before
the predicate. The predicate, as well as the subject, is rwinv&Wy emphatic;
consequently it requires some distinction in utterance ; but, as it is sepa-
rated from the subject by an intervening elause, a short pause is not only
requisite to attract the attention, but, also, to enable the speaker or reader
to utter it with the. force which its importance, in the sentence, demands.
Exercises.
The man, of virtue and honor will be trusted. "We are fearfully, and
wonderfully made. The wise man is happy when he gains his own ap-
probation the fool when he gains the applause of those about him. With
gratitude I remember his kindness. In prosperity he was too much elated
in adversity too despondent.
The turf shall be my fragrant shrine
My temple Lord that arch of thine
My, censer's breath the mountain airs
And silent thoughts my only prayers.
Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. A Hoan loving
serving and adoring his Creator. Jared Hurton having gone to sea bis
wife, desires the prayers of this church. The butterfly child of the sum-
176 ANALYTICAL, JLLUSTRA'TIVS AND
mer flutters, in the sun. The statesman Jeflferson, wrote the Declaration
of Independence.
See, how intemperance spreads
Along our course it rolls
Upon its death-like bosom bears,
Millions of precious souls !
All mankind compose one family assembled under the eye of one common
Father. Turn from your evil, ways 0 house of Israel 1
All tyrants deserve death
Caesar was a tyrant
Therefore he deserved death.
Straws swim on the surface but pearls lie at the bottom. You have stolen
that poor old man's purse. Yonder stands a house of correction. The
greatest suffering that we can endure is to be condemned, by our own con~
science. To expect happiness without the practice of virtue is unreason-
able. Study to acquire a habit of thinking, no study is more important-
Canst thou expect thou, betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of ven
geance. How delightful, is the cempany of our friends ?
^ I can but perish if I go
I am resolved to try
For if I stay away I know
I must for ever die.
If the spring put forth no flowers \
In summer, there will be no beauty >-
And in autumn no fruit. }
There generous fruits that never fail
On trees imuortal gt-ow
There i-ocks and hills and brooks and vales
With milk and honey flow.
Your cofamittee would suggest some improvement in the seats as they
have been informed that some seats were occupied by boys without backs.*
We have been informed that Mr, A' of 0 has committed suicide by
Mr. B hanging himself.
There is a lady in our land
Hath tvrenty nails upon each hand
Five and twenty on hands and feet
This is true and no deceit.
I saw a per^xock with a long fiery tail
I saw a blazing comet pour down hail
I saw a black cloud with, ivy compassed round
I saw a shrubby oak crawl upon the ground
I saw a little pismire swallow up a whale
1 saw the brackish sea Brim full of ale
'Attentioa muBt br paid to conetrnctlen as w«ll ai poactoatlon.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 177
I saw a Venice glass Full fifteen feet deep
I saw a well full of man'a tears that weep
I saw a man's eyes All on a flame of fire
I saw a house As big as the moon and higher
I saw the sun At midnight
I saw the man that saw this dreadful sight.
THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS.
The following words should begin with capital letters;
1. The first word of every distinct sentence.
2. Proper names, and titles of office or honor ; as, George Washington,
General Lee, Judge Story, Sir Walter Scott, the Ohio, Main Street.
Rem. — The name of an object personified, may bo used as a proper name, and
should then begin with a capital ; as, '* Gentle Spring."
3. Adjectives derived from proper nouns ; as, Amerioan, English, Roman.
4. The appellations of the Deity ; as, " God, the Almighty.''^ " The Su-
fveme Being." " The Most Uigh.^'' ^
5. The first word of every line of poetry.
6. The first word of a (^rect quotation, when the quotation would ferm
a complete sentence of itself; as, " Christ says, ' My yoke is easy.' "
7. Every noun and principal word in the titles oi books; as, "Pope's
Essay on Man."
8. The pronoun I and the interjection 0, are written in capitals.
Note.— Other words, when they are of parJicular importance, may begin with
capitals.
Exercises.
Where should capitals he used in the following exercises?
thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not steal, honesty is the best policy.
the soldiers of general Washington loved him as a father, socrates, plato,
aristotle, and pythagoras are the names of distinguished greciau philoso-
phers.
the first female said my name is pleasure.
he has read a great many german and french works.
spencer, shakspeare, and milton are the names of the greatest english
poets.
remember thy creator in the days of thy youth.
up to the throne of god, is borne
the voice of praise at car. 3- morn,
and he accepts the punctual hymn,
sung as the light of day- grows dim.
remember the ancient maxim, know thyself, solomon says, a wise man
feareth and dcparteth from evil, he has read milton's paradise lost, and
paradise regained, ho consulted Johnson's dictionary of the english lan-
guage, and bosworth's anglo-saxon dictionar}'. if i can find the work, i
will send it to you. hear, 0 maa ! 0 excellent Scipio 1" — Butler't Grammar.
[Note. — To exercise the pupil further in punctuation, and the use of capitals, the
teacher may select sentences and extracts from some of the standard aathors.]
176 AUALTTICAL, ILLUBTEATIVE AND
CHAPTER XXXIV.
PEOSODT.
§ 1. Prosody treats of the true pronunciation of words, and
the modulation of the voice in the utterance of sentences ;
hence, in its most extensive sense, it embraces all the laws of
elocution. But, as elocution has become a separate and dis-
tinct science, but little will be said with regard to the utterance
of sentences.
§ 2. Prosody may be divided into two parts.
1. It treats of the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, quan-
tity, emphasis, pause, and tone.
2. The laws of versificatioa.
Accent is the elevation of the voice on some particular syllable, so as to
distinguish it from all syllables in the werd.
Every word of more than ona syllable, must h'Sive one of its syllables
accsnted,
"Words of many syllables frequently have, besides the primary, a w«ak
accent called the secondary.
No special rule can be given for the placing of the accent, that will be
available, — the best one that can be given is this very general one :
In pronouncing the w^ord, place the accent on that syllable which makes
it most easy for the organs to utter ; for that which is most easily uttered
is generally most agreeable to the ear. It may be observed, however, that
words ending in tion and sion generally, have the last syllable but one ac-
cented ; as, relation and confusion ; and that words ending in ity have the
last syllable but two accented ; as, duraljility. '
Quantity is the duration of the voice on a syllable, or the time occupied
in uttering it. Syllables are generally regarded as long or short
A syllable is said to be long, when the accent falls upon a vowel, and
short when it falls upon a consonant ; as, halcer, banter. It should, how-
ever be distinctly borne in mind that the vowel of a syllable is frequently
long when not under the accent.
The time occupied in uttering a long syllable, is generally supposed to be
double that of a short one.
Vowels are generally divided into long and short ; but it should be ob-
served that the quantity of the vowel is not the only element of distinction ;
for those vowels called short, differ in quality as well as quantity. It
should be further remarked that those syllables called long in poetry, do
not depend upon the length of the vowel, but, upon the accentual force
with which they are uttered ; for syllables frequently, containing the short-
est vowels in the language, are called long in poetic construction.
By Emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the voice, by which
we distinguish some word, or words on which we wish to lay particular
stress, and to show how they aifect the rest of the sentence.
In uttering an emphatic word, a greater stress of voice must, necessarily,
be laid upon some one syllable than the others. This force generally coin-
cides with accent, though sometimes it differs from it, and when this is
the case, accent must yield to emphasis; as, "He must increase ; but I
must (decrease."
OONSTBUCTIVE ORAMMAB. 179
There are two kinds of emphasis, — ihc Jirst or natural, — the last or ac-
cidental.
The.7?rsi or natural emphasis belongs to all nouns, verbs, participles,
and adjectives, and it requires but a very slight elevation of the voice.
The last or accidental emphasis, is laid on a word when it has some
particular meaning, and when the force of the sentence depends upon it;
this, therefore, requires a considerable elevation of the voice.
Pause-s, or liests, in speaking or reading, are a total cessation of the
voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space of time.
Besides those pauses, cnWcd sentential, indicated by the comma, colon, etc.,
which have been already noticed — a considerable pause is required in
speaking, called the oratorical pause ; as, *' There was a time when War-
wick more desired, and more deserved it." More in the latter member of
the sentence, although followed by no sentential pause, requires a pause of
considerable length in speaking.
By 2'ones is meant the modulation of the voice or the variation'of the
notes of speech to express sentiments of a different nature ; for instance,
grate or solemn subjects should be uttered in a low tone and slow time.
\Yhile, on the contrary, ga}'- and didatic ones should be spoken in elevated
tones and quick time.
CHAPTER XXXV.
VERSIFICATION.
§ 1. Poetry is metrical composition, or it is the language of
passion, or of enlived imagination.
§ 2. Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of
syllables, according to particuiar rules, so as to produce melody.
3fetrc, in English, consists in the regular return of the ac-
cent at regular intervals. Accent, then, is essential to verse ;
but Rhyme is not, since there may be a regular return of ac-
cent, or syllables similarly affected, without the similarity of
sound which produces rhyme.
Two or more syllables grouped together by accent, constitute
afoot or measure. It is called a measure because, by its aid,
the voice steps along, as it were, through the verse in a meas-
ured pace. When two syllables are thus grouped together, it
is called dissyllabic measure ; as,
With rdv I ished Sars,
The mon | 5,rch hears.
But, when three syllables are thus grouped together, it ia
called tryssyllahic measure ; as,
fftm man | firch 6f all | fsiirvey.
180 ANAlTTiCAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
§ 3. Several measures, or feet, properly arranged, form a
line or verse. -A verse, then, is a certain number of connected
feet forming one line.
§ 4. A Semistieh is half a verse.
§ 5. A Couplet or Distich consists of two verses ; a Triplet
of three.
When the measure of the verse is complete, the verse is called AcataUctic,
When it is deficient or wants a syllable, it is called Gatalectic.
When it contains a redundant syllable or a syllable too much, it is called
Eypermeter, or Hypercatalectic.
§ 6. A Stanza is a combination of several verses, varying in
number, according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a reg-
ular division of a poem, or song.
§ 7. When the first and third lines of a stanza contain four
Iambic feet each, and the second and fourth lines three feet
each, it is Oommon Metre.
§ 8. When the first, second, and fourth lines of a stanza
contain three Iambic feet each, and the third line four, it is
Short Metre.
§ 9. When all the lines of a stanza contain four Iambic feet
each, the metre is Long.
§ 10. Blank verse is metrical composition without rhyme as,
" Now came still evening on, and twilight gray
Had, in 'her sober livery, all things cZa^."
§ 11. Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the last syl-
lables of different lines, as in the following lines :
" How do thy mercies close me round !
For ever be thy name adored ;
I blush Ib all things to abound ;
The servant is above his lord."
Rhyme is €\'<h^x perfect ax defective. Rhyme \& perfect when the vowel,
or tonic sounds of the rhyming syllables, are alike, and, if followed by con-
sonant sounds, they must be similar.
Rhyme may be defective in three ways,
First. When the consonants which precede the tonics in the rhyming
syllables are alilie; for this may cause the words to be identical.
Second. It is defective when the tonic sounds are dissimilar.
Third. When the closing consonant sounds are unlike. This will be
better understood by analyzing a few rhyming syllables.
ANALYSIS OF RHYMING SYLLABLES.
The syllables round and hound, in the above example, as rhyming syl--
lables, consist of three parts, viz., the consonants which precede the vow-
els, or tonics, the toyii^s, and the consonants which fallow. The preceding
CONSTRUOTrV'E GnAMMAR. 181
conBonants r and 5, being unlike, are as they should bo ; and, as iha fol-
lowing consonants are alike, as well as the tonics, the rhyme is perfect
Though, in the syllables dored and lord, the preceding consonants are un-
like, and the following consonants are alike, yet the tonics do not harmon-
ize in sound; for o, in adored, has i\iQ first or long sound of o, and o, in
lord, haa the third sound of a ; hence the rhyme is defective.
Some rhyming syllables which appear perfect to the eye, are, neverthe-
less, defectWe to" the car ; such, for instance, as hrcathc, wreath. Though,
in the«c syllables, the preceding consonants are unlike, and the tonic sounds
are alike, "yet ih has different sounds in the two words ; in the former it
has the vocsl sound, and, in the latter, the aspirate sound. This defect can
only be detected by the ear. Some persons attempt to remedy such defects
by sacrificing correct pronunciation to sound; as,
" The witch, she held the hair in her hand ;
The red flame blazed high,
And ronnd about the chaldron stout,
They danced right marvMy.
This practice should not, however, bo imitated ; for, if verse is defective
in rhyme, the poet alone is accountable.
SINGLE, DOUBLE, AND TREBLE RHYME.
§ 12. When the accented syllabic closes the verse, the rhyme
is single ; as,
" Could I j rehearse | the talcs | of w5,
The tears | which thou | hast caused | to flow."
§ 13. AVhen the accented syllable is followed by another
syllable, the rhyme is double ; as,
" Softly I sweet in | Lydian | meXsures,
Soon he 1 soothed his j soul to | pleasur(5s.''
§ 14. The rhyme is trehle when the accented syllable is fol-
lowed by two others ; as,
" Wearing a | way in his | yduthfulnCss
Loveliness, | beauty, and j truthfulness."
SCANNING.
§ 15. Scanning averse is dividing it into its component feet,
and properly placing the accent.
§ 16. All the feet used in poetry arc reducible to eight
kinds — four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows :
DISSTLLABLE. TKISSYLLABLE.
A Trochee, — ^ A Dactyl, _ -^ ^
An Iambus, ^-^ — An Amphibrach, ■— - — —
21
182 ANALYTICAL, 1LLU8TRA>TIVB, AND
A Spondee, — — ' A Tribrach, ^^ ^^ >^
^ Phyrric, '— ' ^— ' An Anapaest, v^ vw —
The Iambus, Trochee, afid Anapaest may be denominated principal feet *
&s pieces of poetry are chiefly, and may be wholly, formed of them. The
others may be termed secondary f«et^ because their object is to diversify the
numbers, and to improve the verse.
IAMBIC VERSE.
In Iambic verse the second syllable of every foot is accented,
and the first unaccented.
1. Iambic of 9ne foot, or Monometeri
Fr5m m5
They flee.
2. Iambic of two feet, or Dirmter ;
T5 mS I the rCse,
No longer glows.
3. Iambic of three feet, or Trimeter ;
In pis, I ces far | 8r near,
Or famous, or obscure.
4. Iambic of four feet, or Tetrameter ;
H5w sleep | thS brave | wh(5 sink | tS rest,
With all their country's honors blest.
b. Iambic cf five feet, or Pentameter;
On rif j t^d r5cks, | thS drag ) Sn's late ( SbSdes,
The green reed trembles, and tjbe bulrush nods.
6. Iambic of six feet, or Hexameter;
F5r thou I S,rt but j 5f diist ; | bS hum | ble and | bS wise.
Note — The lambio Pentameter is called the Heroic. The Iambic Hexameter is
call.ed the Alexandrine.
The Alexandrine is sometimes admitted into Heroic rhyme, and when
used sparingly and with judgment, occasions an agreeable variety :
ThS seas { sh^ll waste, | thS skies | in smoke | dgeSy,
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ;
But fixed his word, his saving power remains ;
Thy realms | fQrev | er lasts, | thy own | MgssI ) ^h reigns.
*Tho Daotyuo is, by some writere, cUaeed among the pbinoital fkit.
CONSTRUCTIVB GRAMMAR. * 183
7. Iambic of seven feet, or Heptameter :
*ThHlof I tYhtU I thEhttm | blE lawn | withc^unt | Iees beau ) Ues shine;
The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power divine.
It is commonly divided into two lines ; thus.
The lofty hill, the humble lawn.
With countless beauties shine ;
The silent grove, the solemn shade,
Proclaim thy power divine.
§ 19. The Elegiac stanza consists of four Pentameter lines
rhyming alternately ; as,
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ;
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ;
The plowman homewards plods his weary xjoay ;
And leaves the world to darkness and to me.
§ 20. The Spenserian stanza is a stanza consisting of nine
lines ; the first eight are Heroics, and the last is an Alexan-
drine ; as,
It hath been, through all ages, ever seen.
That with the prize of arms and chivalrie
The prize of beauty still hath joined been,
And that for reason's special privatie ;
For either doth on other much rely.
For he meseems most fit the fair to serve
That can her best defend from villanie,
And she most fit his service doth deserve.
The fairest is, and, from her faith, will never swerve.
Spenser.
§ 21. All the varieties of the Iambic, from the Monometerto
the Heptameter, admit of an additional short syllable ; as,
1. Disdain | ing.
2. Upon I a moun | tain.
8. When on — her Mak I er's bos | om.
4. But hail, | thou god | dees sage I and ho | It.
6. What slen | der youth | bedtwed | with liq | uid o | dor.
6. Whose front | can brave | the storm, | but will I not rear | the flow ( ir.
7. To scat I ter o'er | his path | of flame | bright hues | of gem | like
show I Ers.
Rem. — Though tho Iambic Pentameter is called Ileroio, it is not oonfinedto this
measure ; for it sometimoa extends to eight feet, and, in soma instances, even to
nine. (See Dr. Webster's Improved Grammar, page 158,)
*Our supply of accented (type) letters being exhausted aCthii point, we are com-
pelled to omit their ubo, and substitute shall capital Tetters for the breve letter*,
or vBteaented syllable*, tnd italie letters for t.he aoo«nt«d ones, Friktbr.
184 ANALVTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
§22. TROCHAIC VERSE.
1, Trochaic Monometer '.
2. Trochaic Dimeter \
3. Trochaic Trimeter:
Changing,
Ranging,
FancY I viewing,
Joys ensuing.
Go whEre ] glorv [ waits thcE,
But where fame elates thee.
4. Trochaic Tetrameter'.
Round A I \\o\y I calm dif | fusing,
Love of peace and holy musing.
5. Trochaic Pentameter :
AW thAt I walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots,
All that dwell in palaces or garrets.
6. Trochaic Hexameter'.
On A I mountAin | stretched bs | neatb a | hoary | willow,
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow.
§ 23. In Trochaic verse the accent is placed upon the odd
syllable ; in Iambic verse, upon the even.
§ 24, The Trochaic admits of an additional long syllable :
Where the | wood is | waving | green and | high,
Fawns and | Dryads | watch the j starry | sky.
Remark that every species of Trochaic verse, admits of an additional
long syllable ; as,
Lord WE I come bE | fore theE | now,
At thr I feet we | httmbly | bow,
§25. ANAPiESTIC VERSE.
1. Anapcestic Motwrneter :
On thB land.
Now I stand ;
From the sea,
Now I'm free.
2. Anapcestic Dimeter :
On A plain, | as hE strode.
By the hermit's abode.
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 185
3. Anapcestic Trimeter :
Oh yB woods, | sprsad your branch | es Apace ;
To your inmost recesses I fly ;
I would hide with the beast of the chase ;
I would vanish from every eye.
4. Anapcestic Tetrameter :
At thE close I of thE day | whEn thE ham | kt is still ;
And mortals the sweets of forgetfulncss prove.
In Anapaestic verso, the accent falls on every third syllable. Tho first
foot of Anapaestic verse may be an Iambus :
And mor | tAls the sweets | of ferget | folnEss prove.
The AnapjTStic Dimetor and Tetrameter sometimes admit of an additional short
syllable, which gives a pleasing variety to the verso ; as,
On thE road | by the vol | Isy,
As he wan | dered lamen | ting ;
To the green I of the for | Est,
lie returned | him repen | ting.
Tho Tetrameter :
On thE warm | chEEk of youth | smiles And ro | ses Are blen | ding.
§26. DACTYLIC VERSE.
1. Dactylic Mcnometer :
Ohwrfullv,
Tearfully.
5. Dactylic Bimeter : ^
Free from Am | lEtv,
Care and sat | iety.
i. Dactylic Trimeter :
Wearing a | WAy ra his | youthfulDESS,
Loveliness, beautr^, and truthfulness.
4. Dactylic Tetrameter :
Boys will An | ticipate | lavish And [ dissipAte,
All that your busy pate hoarded with care.
Though the Dactylic seldom extends beyond four feet to the verso, yet
the following is an example of Dactylic Hexameter :
OvET thE I vrtllEy, with ) speed like thE | wind, aU ths | steeds WEre a |
galloping, f
It should bo further remarked that Dactylic verse does not generally ter-
»«inate with a Dactyl ; but generally takes a long syllable.
18tf ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE, AND
1. Dactylic Dimeter with an additional long syllable :
CoverEd with | snow was thE | vale ;
Loud was the | shriek of the | gale.
2. Dactylic Trimeter: "
Ttme it hAS | post And thE | ladr is pale,
Pale AS thE I lilv thAt | lolls on thE | gale.
8. Daeti^c Tetrameter :
Glad WAS our | meeting : thy [ gltttEnng | bosom I | hEard,
Beating on | mine like thE | heart of a timorous | bird.
Re^.— When the Dactylic extends beyond four feet to the lino, it still admits of
an additional long syllable. (See Hart's (irammar, page 190.)
Dactylic verso sometimes terminates alternately with a Trochee and aa
additional long syllable :
Brightist And | host of thE | sons of thE | morning.
Dawn on our | darknESS And | lend us thme | aid.
MIXED VERSES.
§ 27. The Iambic is admissible in any place of the line ; as^
I am monarch of all I survey,
My right there is none to dispute.
§ 28. The Trochee is graceful in the third and fourth places
of a line, when it creates a correspondence between the sound
and sense. It is sometimes found in the first place of the line.
Eve, rightly call'd mothEr of all mankind.
Envy commands a secret band,
§ 29. The Spondee consists of two syllables, both accented,
and is admissible in any place of the line, but it is more graceful
after a Trochee.
Load the ta^ll ba.rJi, and launch into the main.
§ 80. The Pyrrhic is a foot of two short syllables ; it is
graceful in the first and fourth, and is admissible in the second
and third places :
Nor m the helpless orphan dread a foe.
But this foot is most graceful in the fourth place :
To farthest shores, the ambrosial spirit flies,
Sweet to the world, and grat^? to the Rkies. '
CONSTRUCTIVE GRAMMAR. 187
§ 81. The Amphibrach is a foot of three syllables, the first
and third short, and the second long. It is used in Heroic
verse, only when we take the liberty to add a short syllable to
a line.
The piece you say is incorrect, wAy Hlce \t,
I'm all submission, what you'd have it maJce it.
§ 32. The Tribrach is a foot of three syllables, all sRrt ; and
it may be used in the third and fourth places.
And thunders down impetuous to the plain.
§ 33. The Dactyl is used principally in the first place in the
line.
J^uriou* he spoke ; the angry chief replied,
§ 34, The Amapoest is admissible in any place of the line.
Bfifore I All iexn \ pins tho up \ right heart 1 And pure.
The Dactyl and the Spondee are sometimes used alternately, as,
Green m' th'fi | wild-wood \ proudly ths J tall troo | looks on ths | brown
pUin.
In the following stanza, the Anapaest and Iambic are beautifully blended
I come, I I come 1 | yE hAvc called | mE long ;
I come I o'or the moun | t8,ins with light | and song!
Ye may trace my steps o'er the wakening earth ;
By the winds that tells of the violet's birth,
By the primrose stars of the shadowy grass,
By the green leaves opening as I pass.
Rem.— In short pieces, tho Amphibrach is occasionally iotrodKoed rs tha prinol
pal foot ,- as,
But vainlv | thou warrEst ;
For this is | Alone in
Thy power to declare.
That in the dim forest
Thou heard'st a low moaning,
And saw'st a bright lady surpassingly fair.
This foot is not frequently employed in grave or solemn subjects.
RULES FOR READING VERSE.
§ 35. With respect to reading verse, we can give but a few
simple rules ; but, perhaps, if these are well understood, they
may be useful.
1. Verse, like prose, to l^e read well, must be thoroughly understood.
188 ANALYTTOAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AKt)
2. Words should be prctiounced as in prose and conversation ; for rmdl-
ing is but rehearsing another's conversation.
3. The emphasis and cadence should be observed as in prose. The voice-
should bound from accent to accent, and no stress should be laid on little-
unimportant wor(Js, nor on weak syllables.
4. The sentential pauses should be observed as in prose ; these are noc
affected by the kind of -writing, being entirely regulated by the sense.
But, as the cesural and final are designed to increase the melody of the
verse, tliPstrictest attention must be paid to them in readin g. They mark
a suspension of the voice without rising or falling.
Rem. 1. — There are two musical pauses — Cesural aad Final.
Reu. 2. — The Cesural pause is not essential to vorse, for the shorter kinds of
measure are without it ; but, when used, it divides the verse into two parts.
The Cesural pause may be placed in any part of the verse ; but has the
finest effect upon the melody when placed after the second or third foot, or
inthe middle of the third :
0 say what stranger cause, yet unexplored,
Could make a gentle belle, reject a lord ?
Rem. 3. — The I'inal pause marks the close of a line or verse, whether there i as
cause in the sense or not.
CONTRACTIONS AND ADDITIONS.
§ 36. When a word is contracted in its first letters, the fig-
ure is called Aphoeresis ; as, 'gai/isty 'garhy 'neath, etc., for
against, began, beneath, etc.
When a word is contracted in its middle letters, it is called
Syncope ; as, MurmWing, for murmuring.
When a word is contracted in its final letters, it is called
Apocope ; as, Tho\ th\ for though, the.
When an expletive syllable is prefixed to a word, it is called
Prosthesis ; as, Adoivn for down.
When an expletive syllable is annexed to a word, it is called
Paragoge ; as, Withoutew for ivithout, dear?/ for dear.
Rem. 1. — Oar best and most tasty speakers pronounce the " ed " in most adjec-
tives as a distinct syllable; as, " A leara-eti divine." " The belov-ed disciple." " A
wick-ei action." But the " frf " in verbs is almost invariably contracted in utter-
ancej hence the use of the apostrophe in contracting such verbs, is not really neces-
sary; for the speaker who would venture to pronounce as in the following, " Ho
-walk'-ed to the church," " John learn-cd his lessoa," would run the risk of beiag
laid upon the shelf as obsolete.
Rem. 2.— When a verb in the prese'nt tense end-s in t or d, the ed is pronouaced
as a separate syllable, because ed will not coalesce in sound with these letters; as,
" He contended for victory." " Th ey were delightad with the exhibition."
Rem. 3. — When a regular verb in the present tense terminates in an atonic which
will not coalesce in sound with ed, the ed is generally contracted^ into t, in utter-
ance ; as Talk, talked— contracted talkt. Some writers contract learned into leavni;
this, howev«r, is evidently erroneous, for the aub-tonics n and d readily coalesce in
sound.
Rem. 4. — When the tonic e occurs between the sub-tonics v and n, it is generally
dropped in utterance, as the sub-tonic n readily unjtes in sound with ti;as, Heaven,
OOSS-mVCTLVK OKAMMAn. 189
elovcn, rlvon, clovoB, etc. Honce, as tho »• is droppod iu utterance, and p. di:-syl-
lablo becomes a monosyllable, tho use of tho apostrophe in cutting off e from the
sy''vble to which it belongs, is unnecessary.
The same may bo prodiciitcd of tho syllable rn or on, following the atonica k and
t ; as, Forsaken, overtaken, reckon, etc., pronounood forsak'n, oyortak'n, reck'n, oto.;
forgotten, rotten, cotton, pronounced for^ott'n, rott'n, eott'n.
ANALYSIS 0¥ VERSE.
§ 37. Tho verse should not only be resolved into its compo-
nent feet, and tho accent properly placed; but tho rhymino- syl-
lables should, also, be critically analyzed; and, if defective, let
the defect be pointed out. Since a Model has been already given
for tlie analysis of rhyming syllables, none need be given here.
EXAMPLES FOR ANALYZING AND KEADING.
Iloro I'll raise mine Ebcnczer,
Hither, by thy hclj), IVc come ;
And I hope, by thy good pleasure,
Safely to arrive at home.
Jesus sought nie when a stranger,
Wand'ring from tho fold of God ;
IIo, to rescue me from danger,
Interposed his precious blood.
All worldly shapes .sliall melt in gloom,
The sun himself must die
Before tho mortal shall assume
Its immortality.
I saw a vision in my sleep.
That gave my spirit strength to sweep
Adown the gulf of time ;
I saw the last of human mold,
That .shall creation's death behold,
As Adam saw her prime.
The sun's eye had a s]tk\y glare ;
Tho earth with ago was wan ;
Tho skeletons of nations wore
Around that lonely n\an.
Some had expired in fight ; the brands
Still rusted in their bony hands ;
In plague and famine, some ;
Eartli's cities had no sound nor troad.
And ships were drifting with tho dead,
To shores where all were dumb.
Can a bosom so gentle remain
Unmoved when her Corj'don sighs ^ I
Will a nymph that is fond nf tho plains,
These [)lains and tiu ' dG.spise?
190 ASALYllOAL, ILLUSTRATIVE A3SD
Dear regions of silence and shade,
Soft scenes of cententment aad ease,
Where I could have pleasantly stay'd,
If aught in her absence could please.
Look not on wine when it ia red,
Or, into danger, you'll be led ;
For, when it moves itself aright,
Then, like a serpent, it doth bite.
Tho' it may make you dance and sing.
Yet, like an adder it will sting ;
Its poison, through your veins, will roll,
And darkness overwhelm your soul.
Bright were thine eyes as the stars, and their glances were radiant as
gleams,
Falling from the eyes of the angels, when singing by Eden's purpurea!
streams ;
Happy, as seraphs, were we ; for we wandered alone,
Trembling With passionate thrills where the twilight had flown.
The melancholy days hav6 come, the saddest of the year,
Of wailing winds and naked woods, and meadows brown and sere ;
The robin and the wren have flown, and, from the shrub, the jay ;
And, from the wood top, caws the crow through all the gloomy day
" I am ready to go," cried the plump young wren,
" From the hateful homes of these northern men ;
For my throat is sore, and my feet are blue ;
I fear I have caught the consumption, too."
Envy commands a secret band,
With sword and poison in her hand ;
Around her haggard eye-balls roll,
A thousand fiends possess her souL
Her troops advance with silent tread,
And stab the hero in his bed ;
Or shoot with wild, malignant lio,
And female honors fade or die.
Since conjugal passion
Has come into fashion,
And marriage so blest on the throne is,
Like Venus, I'll shine.
Be fond and be fine,
And Sir Trusty shall be my Adonis.
She went from the opera, park, assembly, play,
To morning walks and prayers, three times a day,
CON8TRIKJTIVR GRAMMAR. XOJ.
To pass her time 'twiit reading and bolwia,
To muso and spill her solitary tea ;
Or, o'er cold coffee, trifle with the spoon,
Count the slow clock, and dine exact at noon,
Divert her mind with pictures in the fire.
Hum half a tune, tell stories to the squire,
Up to the godly garret after seven.
There starve and pray ; for that's the way to heaven.
One fatal remembrance — one sorrow that throws
Its bleak shade alike e'er our joys and our woes —
To which life nothing darker nor brighter can bring,
For which joy has no balm, and affection no sting.
No breath of air to break the wave
That rolls below the Athenian's grave,
That tomb, which gleaming o'er the cliff,
First greets the homeward veering skiff,
High o'er the land he saved in vain ;
When shall such a hero live again ?
For see, ah I see, while yet her ways
With doubtful step I tread,
A hostile world its terrors raise,
Its snares delusive spread.
0, how shall I, with heart prepared.
Those terrors learn t» meet ?
How, from the thousand snares, to guard
My inexperienced feet ?
Time it haa past, and the lady is palo, —
Pale as the lilly that lolls on the gale ;
Weary and worn she> has watched for years.
Keeping her grief ever green with her tears ;
Years will she tarry, for cold is the clay,
Fett'ring the form of her Everard Gray.
Cold on his cradle, the dew-drops are shining ;
Low lies his head with the beasts of the stall ;
Angels adore him in slumber reclining,
Maker, and Monarch, and Saviour of all.
How happy are they
Who their Saviour obey,
And have laid up their treasures above I
Tongue cannot express
The sweet comforts and peace
Of a soul in its earliest love."
192 AKALYTiOAl., i-LLllSX&Al'IVE AND
How happy ft the pUf rim's lot ;
How free iVom erery ansioug thought,
From worldly hope and fear !
Confined to neither court nor cell,
His Boul disdains on earth to dwell,
Ha only sojourns here.
Hold my right hand, Almijjhty ! and me teach
To strike the lyr«, but seldom struck, to notes
Harmonious with the morning stars, and pare
As those by sainted bards and angels sung,
Which wake the echoes of eternity —
That fools may hear and tremble, and the wise
Instructed listen, of ages yet to come.
See truth, love, and mercy, in triumph descending,
And nature all glowing in Eden's Urst bloom.
On the cold cheek of death, smiles and roses are blending.
And beauty immortal awakes from the tomb.
Life let us cherish
While yet the taper glows,
And the fres^h flow'ret,
Pluck ere it close.
Here's the bow'r she loved so mucli.
And here's the tree she planted ;
Here's the harp she used to touch.
Oh ! how that touch enchanted !
Roses now unheeded sigh,
Where's the hand to wreathe them *
Songs around neglected lie,
Where's the lips to breathe them ?
My bark is upon the deep, Iotc,
My comrades impatient call.
Awake, while the fairies sleep, love,
Awako thee ! more bright than all.
Woodman, spate that tree !
Touch not a single bough,
In youth it sheltered me,
And I'll protect it now ;
'Twas my fathers hand
That placed it near his cot ;
There, woodman, let it stand,
Thy hand shall harm it not.
CONtiTRUCTIVK GKAMMAR. 1^3
Toll not the bell of death for mc,
When I am dead ;
Strew iiottho flow'ry wreath o'er me,
On my cold bed.
Since thou wast man and mortal,
And art by death laid low,
'Tis well that thou hast fallen
On yon lofty Mountain's brow.
That mount will love to praise thee
As its greatest, truest friend,
And will proudly speak thy glory
Till time itself shall end.
With its high, careering summit.
Making lofty seem but low,
'Tis an emblem of that greatness
That thy deeds around thco throw.
The green and fadeless ivy
That wove thy shroud of shade,
Is a token that thy memory
Shall never — never fade.
Those bright and stainless waters
In which thy body lay,
Are an emblem of the tribute
That unnumbered hearts shall pay.
And the hoarse and jarring thunder
AVhich around the mountain brayed,
Seemed the wild alarm of nature,
Telling all her son was dead.
Thou didst grasp a sprig of laurel
And held it e'en in death —
An emblem that no fortune
Shall rob thee of that wreath.
That wreath which is immortal
Like thine own stupendous mind —
A wreath of love and honor
That thy countlcf^a friends have twined.
Softly sweet in Lydian measures.
Soon ho soothed his soul to pleasures ;
War, he sung, is toil and trouble ;
Honor, but an empty bubble ;
Never ending, still bcginnhig,
Fighting gtill, and still destroying.
ig]| AJffALTTICAI., ILLUSTBATIVB A.NfD
0, may thy powerful word
Inspire a feeble worm,
To rush into thy kingdom, L«rd,
And taks it as by storm ?
O may we all improve
The grace already given,
To seize the crown of perfect love,
And scale the mount of heaven !
Loving Jesus, gentle Lamb,
In thy gracious hands I am ;
Make me, Saviour, what thou art^
Live thyself within my heart.
I thall then show forth thy praise,
Serve thee all my happy days,
Then the world shall always see
Christ, the holy child, in me.
I have found out a gift for my fair,
I have found where the wood pigeons breed ;
Yet let me that plunder forbear ;
She will say 'twas a barbarous deed,
For, he ne'er could prove true, she averr'd,
Who could rob a poor bird of her young ;
And I lov'd her the more when I heard
Such tenderness fall from her tongue.
Heaven, from all creatures, hides the book of fate,
All but the page prescribed, their present state ;
From brutes what men, from men what spirits know,
Or who could suffer being here below ?
The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day,
Had he thy reason, would skip and play ?
Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flowr'y food,
And licks the hand juit rais'd to shed his blood.
Like mountains, the billows tremendously swell.
In vain the lost wretch calls on Mary to save.
Unseen hands of spirits are ringing his knell,
And the death-angel flaps his broad wing o'er the wave.
Perhaps, in this neglected spot, is laid
Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire ;
Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed,
Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre.
OONdTBUCnVE (HtAltMi.a. , 1V5
Then peace shall dis»rm war's dark brow of its frown,
And roses shall bloom on the soldier's rude grave,
Then honor shall weave of the laurel a crown
That beauty shall bind on the brow of the bravs.
Ye may trace my steps o'er the wakening eartfc,
By the winds which toll of the violet's birth,
By the primrose stars of the shadow grass,
By the green leaves opening as I pass.
For who, to dumb forgetfulness a pray,
This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned.
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,
Nor cast one longing, lingering look behind ?
Eternal Power, whose high abode
Becomes the grandeur of a God ;
Infinite lengths, beyond the bounds
Where the stars revolve their little roundi.
Thee, while the first archangel sings.
He hides his face behind his wings ;
And ranks of shining thrones around.
Fall worshipping, and spread the ground.
THE BETTER LAND.
There is aland where sorrows cease,
And pleasures always flow, —
A land of life, and joy, and peace,
And thither would I go.
There is a land as bright as day,
^0 clouds obscure the sky ;
And theje all tears are wiped away ;
For people never die.
There is a land of friendship sweet,
No friends unfaithful prove ;
There spicy gales the senses greet ;
For all that land is love.
There is a land of endless day,
Succeeded by no night;
There is a gem of purest ray.
And ecencs divinely bright.
196 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
There is a land where Christians dwell,.
Enthroned in purest bliss,
And where they never say farewell ;
There is no land like this.
There is a land where Jesus reigns
Through one eternal day.
And angels sing in sweetest strains ;
There would I over stay.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
EHETORIC OR ORATORY.
§ 1. Rhetoric or Oratory is the art of speaking or wri-
ting justly, methodically, and elegantly upon any subject, so
as to instruct, persuade, and please. The speech made accord-
ing to the rules of this art is called an Oration, and the speak-
er an Orator. The -word is from a Greek word — Khctorike —
of the same signification. A good orator must be eminent for
invention, disposition, memory, gesture, and elocution. A reg-
ulaT oration consists of five parts, — the Exordium, Narration,
Confirmation, Refutation, and Peroration.
§2. The Exordium or Preamble is the beginning of the dis-
course, serving to gain the good opinion of his hearers, to se-
cure their attention, and to give them a general idea of the
subject. It ought to be clear, modest, and not too prolix.
§ 3. The Narration ov lUstory is the recital of the facts as
they happened, or as they are supposed to have happened. It
ought to be perspicuous, probable, concise, and, on most sub-
jects, entertaining.
§ 4. The Confirmation is proving, by argument, example, or
authority, the truths of the proposition advanced in the Nar-
ration.
§ 5. The Refutation or Confutation is the destroying of the
arguments of our antagonist, by denying what is apparently
false, detecting some flaw in the reasoning, or showing the in-
validity of the proof. It should be sharp and lively.
§ 6. The Peroration or Conclusion is the recapitulation of
the principal arguments, concisely summed up, with new force
and weight, in order to exoite feelings of hatred or pity.
C0JR8TRUGT1VE GRAMMAR.
19:
CHAPTER XXXVII.
FIGURES OF SPEECH.
§ 1 Figurative Language consists in some departure from
simplicity of expression. When we say " A good man enjoys
comfort in the midst of adversity," the language is simple ; but,
when we say, " To the upright there ariseth light m darkness,
the lancruage is figurative. Figures, when well, chosen and
sparingly used, not only give a pleasing variety, but they
greatly enrich and vivify language.
The following are the principal figures : Personification,
Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Simile, Metaphor, Ikony, Metony-
my, Climax, Synecdoche, Interrogation, and Exclamation.
§ 2. F ersonifcation.— Tho application of the properties of
living creatures to inanimate ones, is the basis of this figure ;
as, '' The earth thirsts for rain." " The wilderness shall re-
joice."
•* Cheered with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles."
§ 3. Apostrophe is nearly allied to Personification. It con-
sists in bestowing an ideal presence upon the real, either dead
or absent. We address them as if they stood before us listen-
ing^ to the overfiow of our passions ; as, " Retire, my love, for
it?s night, and the dark winds sigh in your hair. Retire t©
the hall of my feast, and think of the times that are past ; for
I will not return till the storm of war is gone." — Ossian.
"Weep on the rocks of the roaring winds, 0 maid of Inis-
tore, bend tliy fair head over the Avaves, thou fairer than tho
Ghost of the hills when it moves in a 'sun-beam at noon over
the silence of Morven, Ho is fallen ; thy youth is low : pale
beneath the sword of Cuchellcn." — Ossian.
§ 4. Hyperbole consists in magnifying or diminishing an ob-
ject beyond reality.
" ITyperbole soars high, or creeps too slow,
Exceeds the truth, things womderful to show."
" He bowed tho skies." " A snail don't crawl so f^low."
This figure should be sparingly used, especially in grave dis-
course. ,
§ 5. A Simile is a comparison by which anything is illustra-
ted. This figure, equally familiar and beautiful, discovers re-
semblances, real or imaginary, between actions which, iu their
general nature, are dissimilar ; as,
St
198 ANALYTICAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
" The music of Caryl -was like the memory of joys that are
past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." — Ossian.
§ 6. A Metaphor is the putting of the name of one thing for
that of another, so as to comprise a Simile in one word ; or, it
is the application of a word.to a use to which, in its original
import, it cannot be put ; as,
" Wallace was a thunder-bolt of war,
Firigal the gale of spring."
" Like a-mighty pillar doth this one man uphold the State," —
this is a simile. " He is the sole pillar of this ponderous
State " — this a Metaphor.
§ 7. An Allegory is a continued Metaphor ; or it is the rep-
resentative of one thing by another that resembles it, and that
is made to stand for it.
"Venus grows cold without Ceres and Bacchus," — i. e., love
grows cold without bread and wine.
There cannot be a more beautiful and correct Allegory than
that which is found in the 80th Psalm. " Thou hast brought
a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the heathen and plant-
ed ; thou preparedst room for it ; and didst cause it to take
deep root, and it filled the land," etc.
§ 8. Irony is a mode of speech in which the meaning is con-
trary to the words ; as, " Cry aloud, for he is a god ; either he
is talking or he is pursuing, or he is on a journey ; or perad-
v.enture he sleepeth, and must be awaked," 1 Kings, xviii., 27.
§ 9. A Climax is a figure by which the sentence gradually
rises.
"A Climax, 'tis said, by gradation ascends,
They were my countrymen, my neighbors, my friends."
§ 10. Metonymy puts the cause for the eifect ; thejeffect for
the cause ; the container for the contained ; or the sign for the
thing signified : as, "We are reading Virgil" — Virgil's work.
"Gray hairs — old age — should be respected." "The kettle
boils" — the water boils, "He addressed the chair" — the
person in the chair. " She assumed the sceptre " — the royal
authority.
§ 11. A Synecdoche puts a part for the whole, or the whole
for a part ; as,
" While o'er the rooi— home — loud thunders break."
•
§ 12. Interrogation. — The natural use of interrogations is
to ask questions. But, when the passions are moved by some
exciting cause, men frequently throw into the form of ques-
COSSTRUCTIVB ORAMMAR. 199
tions what they would affirm most positively ; as, " Shall not
the judge of all the earth do right ? Hath he not said it ?
And shall he not do ? Hath he spoken it ? And shall he not
make it good ? — Bible.
§ 13. Exclamation. — This figure consists in short passionate
forms of expression, in which the speaker would pour forth the
intensity of his emotions or feelings, in order to excite similar
emotions in the minds of his hearers ; as, " Oh ! the horrors of
cold-blooded murder !" " How vain are all things here below !"
Judgment and taste must be exercised in the use of this figure ;
for, if used too frequently and on unsuitable occasions, it pro-
duces a contrary effect to that intended by the speaker or
writer.
Pupils may be profitably exorcised in converting figurative l.iHguago into plain,
and vice versa ; as, " The sun looked out upon the ijlad waters, Ihoy expanded their
wiuRS, and soared into the atmosphere." Changed—" The sun shone upon the pla-
cid waters, thoy became vapor and rose into the air." " Give, mo a cup half full."
Chmigcd—" Orivo mo half a cup." "The pot boils" — ''The liquor in the pot
boils."
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
FIGURES OP SYNTAX.
§ 1. A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from
the ordinary construction of words.
§ 2. The figures of syntax are five, viz. : Ellipsis, Pleon-
asm, Syllbpsls, Enallaqe, and Hyperbaton.
§ B. The Ellipsis is the intentional omission of some word,
phrase, or clause, which is necessary to the construction, but
unnecessary to the sense. In such cases, the omitted element
is said to be understood ; because it is perceived by the wmi,
and not by the senses ; as, " She is fairer than her sister," i. e.,
than her sister is fair. Is Q.nd fair arc not seen nor heard ; but
they are perceived by the mind.
§ 4. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words, or
words which are unnecessary to the construction or sense ; con-
sequently only admissible for the sake of emphasis ; as, " Jlim
that hath ears to hear, let him hear."
§ 5. Syllepsis is the agreement formed according to the
figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the
thinors spoken of, and not according to the literal or common
sdusa of the term ; it is, therefore, in general, connected with
200 Alf A*¥!KCAL, H/LUSTRA^ITB, !.??©
some figure of rhetoric ; as, " The Word was made flesh, and
dwelt among us ; and we beheld his glory."
§ 6. Enallage is the use of one part of speech or of one
modification, for another, or one tense for another. But, as
the practice leads to solecism, and, if, indulged in, would su-
persede all rules of grammar whatever, it can only be admitted
to a very limited extent ; as, " They fall successive, and suc-
cessive rise." " Than whom none higher sat," t. «., Than
he, etc.
I 7. Htperbaton is the tranposition of words ; as, " Whom,
therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you."
" He wanders earth around." This figure is extensively used
in poetry, and, when judiciously employed, it confers variety,
strength, and vivacity to prose composition, .Ambiguity must,
however, be guarded against.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
COMPOSITION.
A FEW SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS.
You bave now, it is presumed, my young friends, acquired considerable
knowledge of the analysis and construction of sentences, and of the science
of language generally; but you must not suppose that your task is done.
Here a new and fertile field opens before you, and invites you to cultivate
it. Here you may bring into practical operation all the knowledge whicii
you m»y have acquired, and concentrate it upon a single subject. Here you
have full scope for the exercise of all your skill in arranging the elements
of a sentence, and in making each sentence take its proper position in the
regular thread of discourse or composition.
In your first attempts at composition, you need not be surprised, if you
should feel the want of ideas ; and also, if you should find some diffiulty
in selecting appropriate words to express the ideas which you may already
possess ; but be not discouraged ; for [indtlstry and untiring ptrsevtranee
will sooner or later crown your eftbrts with success.
The first step to be taken in writing composition is, to obtain ideas ; the
second, is the proper expression of the ideas when obtained. To acquire
ideas, it is necessary to cultivate habits of observation; to use the eyes not
only in noticing entire objects, but also their different jjarts ; to consider
their qualities, uses, operations, and effects ; together with their relation to
other things.
The mind employed in such exercises acquires materials for its own ope-
rations, and thoughts and ideas arise, as it wer«, sp»nteReously. ^eePai^
ker's Aid to coiBpositionf.
Q»««T»UCTIVB CHIAMMAR. 20l
In the selection of words to express Ideas, care must be taken to eelect
«uch words as will express them clearly, forcibly, and elegantly. To do
this, standard works ol the best authors should be carefully studied, and
the best dictionaries consulted.
The limits of this work will not allow us to enter into the inTestigation
of the qualities of style, A few plain directions only can be giren.
1. Acquire as thorough knowledge as possible of your subject, before at-
tempting to write upon it.
2. Do not use any one's language, but your own, except you wish to
make a quotation.
3. Do not mingle plain and rhetorical language in the same sentence.
4. Do not attempt to write after the subject is exhausted.
5. Do not ba anxious to select subjects of a general nature ; for they
are generally tho most barren, especially to beginner.':.
6. Study to express yourselves grannnaticallj^ and clearly.
7. Do not forget to punctuate your compositions accuratelv.
8. Let one leading idea predominate throughout the periocf.
■9. Guard against the use of foreign or inappropriate words, also against
low and vulgar expressions.
10. Let your words be pure, that is, such afl belong exclusively to th«
English language.
ar9 regard-
RiH. — Those words of foreign origin which havo becotno Angliciied,
ed as beloDging to tbo language.
11. Construe those elements which are closely allied, as near to each
other as possibia
Rbm. — Any inattention to this rule will hardly fail to lead to ambijuity, or to a
total perversion of the meaning intended. Not long since, a temperance leccurer
said, *' I remember having read of an old lady who died in tho newspaper, because
her husband lay drunk at a neighboring still-house." Now he did not intend to
convey the idea that tho hereine of his story really died in a newspaper ; yet the
language clearly expresses It. This mistake might have been prevented by a dif-
ferent collocation of the elements. Thus : "I remember having read in a newspa-
per of an old lady who died," etc.
DIFFERENT KINDS OP COMPOSITION.
All compositions, whether spoken or written, are cither prose or poetry.
Prose compositions are those in Khich the thoughts and sentiments are
expressed in common and ordinary language.
Poetic composition is expressed in regular numbers, and so arranged as
to please the car and captivate the imagination.
The different kinds into which prose compositions may be divided, are,
Narratives, Letters, Memovs, History, Bi»graghy^ Mtsays, Philosophy,
Sermons, Novels and Speeches, or Orations.
The different kinds of poetic composition, arc, the Epigram, EpiUifl,
Sonn«t, Pastoral, Didactic, Saiirux, Descriptive, Elegiac, Lyric, Dramatic,
and Epic, or Heroic.
202
ANALYTrCAL, TLLUSTRATIVE AND
SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION,
1. The setting sun.
2. The fading flower.
3. Christ weeping over Jerasalem.
4. The Marys of the Scripturas.
5. The wise men led by the star.
6. Education a preventative of crime.
7. Education the road to eibinence and
distinction.
8. The morning of life.
9. The close of life,
10. The noon of life.
11. The teidoncy of the age.
12. The path of duty, the path of safety.
13. Courage.
14. Hope.
15. Eeligion the brightest orsament of
youth.
16. Freedom.
17. All things bright must fade.
18. Stability of character.
19. The lilly.
20. Power of habit.
tl. Criticism.
22. Government of temper.
23. Karly attachments.
24. Poetical taste.
25. The grave of the young.
26. Manners.
27. Parental indulgence.
28. Ruth's afiection for Naomi.
29. Our country.
SO. Justice.
81. Linville Falls.
32. Beauty.
83. My Bible.
34. Try again.
85. Time flies.
36. Friends in adversity.
S7. Nature's God.
88, Public opinion.
89. The mountains of North Carolina
40. Politeness.
41. Anger.
42. Envy.
43. Suspicion.
44. Intemperance the way to shame and
death.
45. Ignorance.
46. The battle of the Cowpens.
47. We must all die.
48. North Carolina.
49. Virginia.
iO, South Carolina.
61. Learning.
52. Meditations among the tombs.
63. English Grammar,
54. The world as it ii.
55. Keligion.
56. Let me think.
57. Is there not & cause /
58. The waning mooB,
99. Prid^.
SO. Wisdom.
61. Astronomj.
62. The law.
63. Tho valley o[ dry bones.
64. Art.
65. Science.
66. Curiosiky.
67. Misery is wed to guilt.
68. The loarned professions.
69. Language.
70. Weeping.
71. Love.
72. Astrology.
73. All pleasure is vain.
74. Omnipotence.
75. Good society.
76. Writing.
77. Bonaparte's banishment to St.Helena.
78. The polar star,
79. George Washington.
80. Noah entering the ark;
31. The Flood.
82. Rome,
83. The beauties of nature.
84. The pleasure of doing good.
85. Time, how short !
Ichabod.
87. Tho beauties ef the Latin language.
88. Eloquence of Demosthenes.
89. Success the reward of industry and
perseverance.
90. Eloquence of Cicero.
91. Bene'lict Arnold.
92. The structure of the ancient and mod-
ern languages compared.
93. The race is not to the swift.
94. Hope, excited by brilliant talent, is
sometimes disappointed.
95. Improvement.
96. Fashionable education.
97. The influence and folly of fashien.
98. Woman,
99. Youth is the time for improvement.
100. A few things well learned, is better
than a superficial knowledge of
many.
101. (Christianity.
102. Heroism.
103. Conjugal affection.
104. History.
105. Fortitude.
106. Art of pleasing.
107. Natural laws.
108. Study.
109. Man.
no. Death.
111. Kteraity.
112. The Scriptures.
113. Gratitude,
114. Knowledge is power.
115. Forgiveness.
!ll6. SioKne«s.
CON'STRUCTIVK GRAMMAR.
203
1 17. Mt. Mitch el.
lis. Liberty.
119. Literary genius.
120. Independonoe.
121. Government.
122. Trust in God.
123. The pulpit.
124. Sources of knowledge.
125. The gambler.
12«. The liar.
127. Intemperance.
128. Use of tobacco.
129. TJso of ardent spirits.
l.'^O. The rose.
131. Compasjion.
132. The press.
133. The voice.
134. Masic.
185. The choice of a profegsion.
136. Contemplation.
137. On forming connections.
138. Traveling.
139. Emulation.
140. Sloth.
CHAPTER XL.
ENGLISH, LATIN AND GREEK PRBPIXB3.
ENOLISn PREFIXBS.
A signi6es on or in; a?, A-foot; a-bed.
After — posterior in time ; as, After-noon.
Be — about; as, To be-sprinkle; also by or nigh; as, Be-side.
Ftr — negation ; as, To for-bid ; for-sake.
Fore — beforehand; as, To fore-sec ; fore-telL
Miss — defect or error ; as, Mis-behave.
Over — cininency or superiority ; as, To ovcr-come ; also excess; as, To
over-drive.
Out — excess, excellency or superiority; as. To out-number; out-shine.
Un — negation ; as, Unable ; unwilling-
Wndtr — inferiority in ranks; as, Undcr-clerk; also diminution in value;
as. To under-rate.
Up — above; upwards; as, To up-lift ; up-land.
Wit7i — against ; as, To with-stand ; also from or back ; a.s, To with-hold.
LATIN PREFIXES.
Ab or ahs signifies from ; as, Abstain ; absolve.
Ad — to or at; as, Adjoin ; adjacent
Ante — before ; as, Ante-date.
Gircum — about or around ; as, Circum-volve ; circum-navigate.
Con — with or together ; as, Con-dole.
Contra — against ; as, Contradict
Connter — against; as, Countcr-niand.
De — motion from or down ; as, De-part ; de-grade ; de-ject.
Di — asunder ; also extension ; as, l)i-lacerate ; di-late.
Dis — negation ; as, Dis-approve ; dis-agreo.
E or ex — out or off; as M^ject ; ex-clude.
Extra — beyond ; as. Ex travagant ; ex-traordinary.
In — negation ; as, In-active ; in-decorous.
Inter — between ; as, Inter-vene ; inter-rupt.
Intro — within ; as, Intro-duce ; intro-vert.
6>ft— against ; a.s, Ob-jcct ; ob-struct ; also out ; as, Ob-literate.
Ptr — through ; as, Per-vade.
204 ANAIi¥<E»OAl^ Ebl^SSRAIvirE, AN©
Post — after ; as, Post-script ; post-pone.
Pre — before ; as, Prefix ; pre-exist.
Prefer — past or beyond ; as, Preter-natural.
Pro — forth or forward ^ as, Pro-duce ; pro-ject.
Pe — again or back ; as. Re-print ; re-pay.
Eetro — backward ; as, Retro-spect.
Se — aside or apart ; as, Se-duce ; se-lect.
Sui — under ; as, Sub-scribe ; sub-marine,
Subter — under ; as, Subter-fluous,
Super — above or over ; as, Super-structure.
Trana — beyond ; as. Transport ; transgress ; also to change ; as Transfono.
GBEEK PREFIXES.
A or an signifies without or privation ; as, A-nonymous ; an-archy.
AmpM — both and about ; as, Amphi-bious ; amphi-theatcr.
Anti — against ; as, Anti-dote.
Ante — before ; as, Ante-date.
Hyper — over and above ; as. Hypcr-boHcal,
Hypo — under ; as, Hypo-crite.
Meta — beyond change ; as, Meta-phor.
Peri — about ; as, Peri-meter ; peri-hclion.
Syn or Sym — with or together ; as, Syn-od ; sym-pathy.
GLOSSARY OF THE DERIVATION OF THE PRINCIPAL SCIEN-
TIFIC TERMS USED IN THIS WORK.
Accent is from the Latin acantus, from ad, to, and cano, to sing, — to sing to
Activa is from the Latin activus, and ago, to act.
Adjective is from the Latin adjecihus, from ad, to, and jacio, to throw —
throten to or against.
Advtri is from the Latin ad, to, and verium, a word, — add^d or joined to
a word.
Affirmative is from the Latin j?rmfl, to make strong.
Alligation is from the Latin alligo, to bind together.
Af position is from the Latin appositus, placed together or near.
Apostrophe is from the Greek apostrophe, turning away.
Article is from the Latin artic%lus, a little joint.
Aspirate is from the Latin utjriro, to breathe or blow. Greek aspairo, to
palpitate.
Atonic is from the prefix a, not, and tonos, a sound.
Auxiliary is from the Latin auxiliaris, helping.
Case is from the Latin casus, from cado, to fall.
Climax is from the Greek Mlmax, a scale or ladder.
Colon is trom the Greek kolon, a member or limb.
Comma is from the Greek komma, a segment, from k&pto, to cut off.
C»mparative is from the Latin comjmro, to compare.
Construction is from the Latin co7istructum, from construo, to construct.
Concord, is from the Latin concordia, agreement.
Conjugation is from the Latin conjugatio, from eon, together, and jugo, to
yoke — to yoke together.
Conjunction is from the Latin conjunctio, from con, together, and jungo, to
join — to join together.
Consonant is from the Latin consonant, sounding together.
Common is from the Latin communis, a benefit or right.
^ojwfcj is from the Latifl aopulct, a band or tie.
• CONPTRPCTIVE GRAMMAR. 205
Dendrology is from the Greek dendron, a tree, and lojfos, a doctrine.
Declension is from the Latin dedinatio, bending or changing.
Decline is from the Latin de, from, and clino, to bend — to bend from.
Deductive is from the Latin deduetio, from de, from, and duco, to lead — to
lead from.
Definite is from the Latin defino, to d«finc.
Demonstrative is from the Latin Demonstro, to point out.
Difhthon^ is from the Greek diphthoggos, a double sound.
Dissyllable is from the Greek di.'!suUMih4, t\vo syllables.
Distributive is from the h^ixn distribuo, to distribute.
Element is from the Latin chmentum, a constituent,
Ellipsit is from the Greek ellipsis, an omission. •
Etymoloijy is from the Greek etumdlogia, from eiwnologeo, to derivo a
word from its original.
EmpIiMsis is from the Greek einphanis, a charge.
Feviini7i6\s froin the Lai'm femina, a woman. ,
Future is from the Latin./"«^«r?/,9, about to be.
Futnre- Perfect is from the Latin futurua-per/eotum, completed before a
future time.
Oender is from the Latin genus, a kind or class,
Gnomonology is from the Greek g:ioinon, a point or index, and loj-^s, a
doctrine.
Grammar is from the Greek grammtt, a letter.
Imperfect is from the Latin imperfectua^Tiot finished.
Imperative is from the Latin impero, to command.
Implenary is from the Latin implenun, not full.
Indicative is from the Latin indico, to declare.
Infinitive is from the Latin infinites, not bounded.
Intlefinite is fram the Latin iiidefinitus, not defined.
Inductive is from the Litin induco, leading with or to.
Interjection is from the Litin interjectio, thrown into or between.
Intransitive i<^ from the Latin intransitioui, not passing over.
Integrity is from the Fiitin integritas, an unbroken state.
Interrogative is from the Latin interrogo, to ask.
Irony i> from the Greek eironea, a disnerabler.
Irregular is from the Latin ir, not, and regular — not regular, \
Masculine is from the Latin otim, a male.
Metre is froai the Greek mttron, a m jasure.
Moda is from the Latin modus, manner.
Monotogy is from the (jreck monos, alone, and logos, a doctrine.
Neuter is from the Latin muter, neither.
Negative is from the Tjitin nj;go, to deny.
Notation is from the Latin notatio, a mark.
Noeton is from the Greek noetos, perceived by the mind.
Nominative ig from the Latin nomiiio, to name.
Nou?i ia from the Latin nonien, a namt.
Order is from the Iia,tin or(^Zr>, a met lodicil arrangement.
Objective iif from the ijitm obje^tivus, from 06, against, and/^cw, ti thro^r, —
thrown to or against. •
Orthography is from th3 Greek orthographic, from orthos, true, an I
graphfi, writing, — v riting words correctly,
Partf/t'A^-«/« is from tho ii reek ;»irf/*'A^#/v, frvn pira, and entitkemi, t)
insert.
PartieipU is from the Litin par6iji/>/!T;rt, froia ^'ir*, a part, and capio, it
take.
206 AKALYTICAL, ILI,U6tRATIVE AKD
Passive (voice) is from the Latin passivus, from paticr, to suffer, — suf-
fering.
Perfect is from the Latin perfectum, completed.
Period is trom the Greek periodos, (rom peri, around, and odos, a way —
a circuit.
Personification is from the Latin persona, a person, and facio, to
make, — making persons.
Petitionative is from the Latin 2^eto, to seek or implore — asking.
Polysyllable is from the Greek 2^olus, many, and sullahe, a syllable —
many syllables. •
Position, is from the Latin pos«<zo, a place.
Potential is from the Latio potentialis, belonging to power or ability.
Predicate is from the Latin prcedicaius, from prcedico, to declare.
Preposition is from the Lati n prfpose'^io, from prepositus, placed before.
Pronoun is from the Latin pro nomen, for or instead of a name.
Prosody is from the Greek ^^'''osodia, from 2Jros, for, and ode, a song.
Punctuation is from the Latin punctum, a stop or point.
Plenary is from the Latin phmis, full.
Pural is from the Latin -pl^'h more.
Possessive is from iheJjatm possideo, to possess.
Regular is from the Latin feoula, a rule.
Semicolon is from the Latin semi, half, and the Greek kolon, a point.
Sentence is from the Latin sententia, a thought.
Subject is from the Latin subjectus, placed under.
Subjunctive is from the Latin subjunctivus, subjoined.
Subfirtna live IB Uom the Le^Un sub, under or inferior, andyi?-mo, to
make strong.
Substantive 'S from the Latin substantia, a substance.
Superlative is from the Latin stqyerlutivus, from super, above, and
latum, carried, — carried above.
Sorites is from the Greek sorites, a hoap.
Syllof/isrn is from the Latin syllogismus ; Greek sylloyismos, thinking.
Syllable is from the Greek sul.labe, a syllable.
Syntax is from the Greek suntaxis, from sun, together, and tasso, to
pat, — to p' t together.
Singular is lom the Latin singidus, one by one.
Teyise is frri .ho Latin tampus, time.
Tonic is fi' lu the Greek tonos, a soeind.
Transitive i^^ from the Latin transltivus, from trans, across, and eo, to
go, — going over or across.
Triphthong is from the Greek treis, three, and tkoggos, a sound, — three
sounds.
Trihyllab e is from the Greek trcis, three, and sullabe, a syllable, —
three syllables.
Verb is from the LaLin verlum, a word.
Verse is from th-- Latin versus, tVom verto, to turn.
Voivel is trom ii^e Latin vocalis, iiuui vox, the voice.
CONSTRUOTIVK GRAMMAR.
207
APPENDIX.
NOUNS.
Gender, Number, Person, and Case, belong to nouns.
Gender, in the Eng1i-;h languai^e, depends pr-incipilly ou the sex of the
object; and not,, like many other langinjj.-A, , -i torniT.tions.
VVhen nouns, natumllv neuter, are personiliud or used figiuMrijvely, they
are either masculine or feminine.
Those nouns which are by nature strong and cDBcacious, or noted for th«
attributes of communicating or imparting, are masculine ; is. The Sun^
Dr<}(h, Time etc.
Those nouns which are noted for the attributes of b luLy, mildness,
clemency, or containing, arc feminine; as, Afoon, Virtue, Luxrity, etc.
Nouns have three modes of farming the gender.
1. By a regular termination for the feminine ; as,
actor
actress
deacon
deaconess
abhot
abbess
duke
duchess
ndultorer
adulteress
embassador
embassadress
baron
baroness
emperor
empress
benefactor
benefactress
tiger
tigress *
governor
governess
songster
songstress
hero
heroine
seamstor
seamstress
beir
heiress
viscount
viscountess
peer
peeress
jew
Jewess
priest
priestess
lion
lioness
poet
poetess
master
mistress
prince
princess
marquis
marchioness
prophet
prophetess
patron
patrouess
shepherd
ehepherdoss
protector
protectoress
sorcerer
sorceress
executor
exeutrix
tutor
tutoress
testator
testatrix
instructor*
instructress
elect'. I
eloctress
traitor
traitoresB
administrator
administratrix
count
countess
widower
widow
2. By different words ; as.
man
woman
•
undo
aunt
boy
girl
brother
Bister
son
daughter
horse
mare |
3. By prefixing a syllable or
' word ; as.
A male rabbit
a female rabbit a man servant
a maid servant
a be goat
a she goat
a cock-.sparrow
li hen sparrow.
The pluralt of most nouns is
formed by annexmgs or cs to tl\f sing
NUMBER.
*The fomlntne of most noons ending in or is formed by retrenching tko vowel ai,^
blending two Byllables in one ; as ActOB, actiiKss.
+Tho plural of mere charactsrs is formed by anneiinst the apostrophe auds: as, Two
«'b Mid three 6'e.
208
ANAIVTJOAL, ILLIWTBATIVE AND
as, boy^ loys ; girl, girls, etc. S only is added when it will coalesce in
sound with the other letters; as, Table, tables ;boo'k, looks, etc.; but when*
will not coalesce in sound with the other letters, es is annexed ; as, Bench,
tenches ; box, boxes; etc. When ^ has the sound of tsh, s will not unite
with it in sound ; but when it represents the sound of k, s will readily unite
in sound with it; as, Monarch, Monarchs ; patriarch, ^^atriarchs, etc.
"When a name ends in y, after a consonant, the plural is formed by drop-
ping y and adding ies ; as. Vanity, vanities. Alkali has a regular plural —
ulhilics. But, when y is preceded by a vowel, it is formed by annexing s;
as, Joy, joys ; valley, valleys, etc.
Some nouns deviate from the foregoing rules in the formation of the
plural.
Class 1. — In some nouns / in the singular is changed into v in the plu-
ral for the sake of utterance ; as,
life
lives
wolf
wolves
loaf
loaves
knife
knives
self
selves
wharf
wharves
wife
wives
half
halves
thief
thieves
leaf
leaves
beef
beeves
shelf
shelves
calf
calves
elf
elves
sheaf
sheaves
Class 2. — Some nouns are used in both numbers, with their plurals ir-
regularly formed ; as,
child
foot
tooth.
man I
vomnn
hypothe'sis
emphasis
die
focus
radius
criterion
children
pea
feet
ox
teeth
louso
men
goose
women
beau
hypotheses
thesis
emphases
penny
dies or dice
antithesis
focusses < r feci
calx
radiuses or radii
index
criteiioDS or criteria brother
peas or pease
oxen
lice
geese
beaux
tholes
pennies or pence
antitheses
ealxes or calces
indexes or indices
brethren or brothers
Cherubim and seraphim are real Hebrew plurals ; but su'-h is the propensity of
men to lorm regular inflections in language, that these words are used as in the
singular with regular plurals ; as Chcrubims, seraphims. In like manner tht He-
brew singulars, Cherub and Seraph have regular plurals.
Class 3. — Those which have a plural termination, take a plural verb ; as,
annals
archives
ashes
assets
bitters
compasses
clothes
calendb'
breeches
bowels
drawers
downs
dregs
embers
entrails
fetters
filings
goods
hatches
ides
lees
customs
lungs
shears
matii^
scissors
mallows
shambles
orgies
tidings
nippers
longs
pincers or
victuals
pinchers
thanks
pleiades
vespers
snuffers
vitals
Letters in the sense of literature, and manners in the sense of behavior, may be
added to t^e foregoing list.
Class 4. — Soms nouns ending with th« plural termination, are used in
the singular or plural at the pleasure of the writer; as,
wages
billiards
catoptrics
mathematics
comics
fives
diaphoretics
mechanics
economics
seasious
acoustics
hydraulics
am«nd8
measles
aim!!
hysterici
bellows
physics
cdds
ethics
melons
optica
pains
news
pnc^umatics hydrostatica
statistics analytics
statics politics
spherics molasses
tactics riofaei
gallows
Of these, paing, riches, and reaves.* are more usaaUy cc nsidered as ] lural nouns.
News ij always singular, — odds and means are either sing lar or plural -the others
are more siriotly singular; lor measles is the name of a dif iso, and 8tri":'y lo more
plural than ;/t)»«t or /crw. Small-2mx— for pocks^\9 somotiuies considcrodas si»»
gular. BiiUiii'd.f is the name of a game containing wnity of idea ; and ethics, phys-
ics, and similar names, comprehendin<j each the whole system of ^. PHtticular
science, do not convey the ideas of psrt.s or particular brarich<^s ; but i ' > >« ic'.e col-
lectively, uBity; — hence singular. Mo/a*ses (more striciU meUseca) t'>r vxi Spui-
ish melaza, is strictly singular, being tlie syrup vphi^h drains from Mut>covf'<lo sugar
while cooling.
Class 5. — Such nouns as have a singular form take a plural T«rb; as,
A hundred head. Twenty sail.
A thousand horse. " Five thousand foot, etc.
Class 6. — Some nouns have no plural form ; such as. Sheep, deer, swine,
etc. The singular or plural df these can only be known by the verb as-
sociated with them, or the singular may be determined by prefixing the
article «; as, A sheep, a deer, etc.
CASE.
I,n addition to what has been said on this subject, in the body of the
work, the fallowing remarks may be of some service to the learner.
Rem. I. — The Possessive ca^o of singular nouns is generally formed by the use of
the ayio?frophe and s; a?, Tho boy's book. But when a singular noun ends in a
hissing sound, followed by a word commencing wi'h a hissing soand, the apostro-
phe only is used ; as. Tboy suffer for conscience' sake ; For righteousness' sake.
Some writers omit the s of a sinsular noun when it is not followed by a word com-
mencing with » hissing sound ; us, Moses' rod, — instead of Moses's rod. All nouns
pluralized by s should retain the apostrophe only; as, "Those boys' books." " Har-
riet makes li<lies' bonnets."
Ri;m. 2. — AVben the governing noun i,^ obvious, it is usunl to omit it ; ufi, '' Let us
jro to St. Paul'a," that iV, cliuro!!. " iSfor think a lovers are but f.incied woes."
When the posBe.«!sor is descr:l)ad by Ito or more names, the sign of the pfssassive
is generally annexed to the last ; as, •' Tho captain of the guard's house." " Of the
children of Israel's half, thou shall t.iko one portion." In such cases, all I'.o names
may be p;ir.«ed at a compound noun, and should perhaps be written with a hyphen,
thus : Tho c ipiain-of-the-^^uard's house, liat, if the thing possessed is represented
as belonginj^ to a number i?i?vorally cpociScd, the sign of the possessive .•should bo
repeated with prcH ; as, " Jlcj has the surgeon's and the physician's advice" It
may be observcii that thisromork is in direct collision with Murray's rule. Thereis
an obvious har.^hness in tho reading of tlio following sentence: "It was the men,
women, and children's lot to i=utr<jr extremely." Dr. Webster .iustly rera.irks that
Murray's rule is egrog iousiy wrong as exemplified in this phrase : " This was my
father, 7iiothor, and uncle's advii>Tj.-' This is not English. "When we say,
" The king of England's throne," tho fhroo words, king of England, are f ne name
in eft'ect, and can have bu' one sign of tho possessive. But, when two or three dis-
tinct names are used, the article posf^esped is described as belonging to each ; '• I' »Tas
my faiher'.s advice, my mother's advieo, and ii.y uncle's advice." Wo can omi» id-
vice alter the two first, but by no means tho sign of the pofl8^•s^ive. It, howevnr, sh')uld
be observed, that when two nouns mutually possess tho same object, and a)e closely
connected by a conjunction, that good writers frequently omit the »ign yf the first;
as, " David and Jonathan's frioadsWip." " Adam and Eve's morning hymn."
♦Wages, orifinally waois, Isrtally elngular.
210 ANALTTICAL, ILLUSIRATITK ASO
Rem. 3. — When n^' ins in apposition follow each other in clof- pn.'-cesslon, writers
generally omit the ji/seessive sign to all but the last; as, " For D.ivid. my servant's
8ake. But, when tb '3 governing noun is either expressed or o\)vint!.^ly understood
before the first possessive, the possessive sign should be annexed to t,he first and
omitted at the rest; ns, " Herod laid hold on John, and bound h m, and put him in
prison for Hcrodias' sake, his brother Philip's wife." '■ The silk whs purchased at
Erowu's, the mercer r.rd haHerdasher." The c instruction of the U.-t, iwo ftxaaiples
isfaulty. It would l>o better to coustrue thein thus: -'Herod liid held on John,
and bound him, and cast him into prison f'^r t'le ^mIcu of Herofliiis, the wil'o of hia
brother Phillip." A-< ."^ome possessives are difficult t-' utter, and yonsequsntly hurt-
ful to the euphony of the sentence, the same idea mav be more el ■•;^ mily expressed
by the preposition of ; thus, " Give me here John ilaptist's head in a charger" —
better, "Give me here the bead of .John Baptistin a charger."
It is inelegant to construe several nouns in the possessive oaso in juxf-i, position
with e.Tch other; fs, "Peter's tmfe's mother lay sick of a fover." Better thus :
" Tlie mother of Peter's wife lay sick of a fever."
APPOSITION.
When other nouns are artpended to the principal name to identify or ex-
plain it, they are in apposit on with it; as, " Dar.iel Webster, the distin-
guished statesman and orator, now reposes in the noisi'less grave." In
this example, statesman and orator identify Daniel Webster, by showing
what kind of a man he was.
?lE5i. 1,— Words in apposition must be construed in the same member of the sen-
tence ; that is, both with the subject or both with the predicate.
Rem. 2. — Words are not unfrequently pvt \a apposition with a whole sentence or
part of a sentence; as, " Whereby if a mm had a poci'ive idea of infinite, either
space or duration, he could add two infinites together; nay, make one infinite infinite-
ly bigger than another ; absurdities too gross to be confi'.ted." Here ubsurditins are
put bT apposition with all the preceding propositions. "You arc luo humane and
considerate ; things few people can be chargad with." Here things are in apposi-
tion to humane and considerate.
Rem. 3. — -V complex name, consisting of several names, or even a title and a
nr.me, m;s> b-) narsed as a siugle name ; as, "Dr. Benjamin Franklin invented the
lishtnuig-iod." Parsed— !>;•. Benjamin Franklin, is a proper noun, masculine gen-
der, third person, singular, and in the nominative case to the verb invented, accord-
ing to rule — The subject of the verb must 1 h in the nominative case. When a defi-
nite article and a numeral adjective arc used in oonrection with the title and a name,
the name only should be pluralized : a^, " The two Miss Turner.'?." •' The three Miss
Browns." " The two Dr, Longs." But. when used -yitaout the numeral, the title
only is pluralized: as, " Tiie Missed Smith." But, of married ladies, the name only
isplur-alizad; as, Mrs. Lowes." In conversation, the teim Misses is now generally
apiilied to a married lady ; as, " Alisses Hamby." When two or more names, con-
nected by ff/i</, having the same title, the title only should be pluralized; as,
"Messrs. Nesbitt, Turner, and Iloleman." " Doators Campbell and Love."
It may be observed with regard to Miss, the title of a young lady, that there is
some diversity of usan;e. In conversation, we generally say the Miss Grays, and
this was formerly the custom in writing, as shown in the practice of Burke, Bos-
\ve'!, and many'others. Of late it has become customary in writing to say Misses ;
as, " Micses Gray." This may bo now regarded as the prevailing usage. In fa-
miliar conversation, we frequantly apply Miss to the Christian name ; as, " Miss
Mnry ;" but, in writing and in all introductions, it thould be applied to the family
mime ; as, " Miss Gray."
THE SAME WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH.
Like is used as four parts of speech.
Like is a noun when it means resemblance ; as, " Every creature loves its like." It
is a verb when it ^presses a preference and is,nearly synonymous with love; as, "I
like what you disliffe." It is on adjective when it is equivalent to similar ; as, " An-
(fer, envy, and like passions, are sinful." It is an adverb when it means in the satae
C0N8TRUGT1TE GRAMMAR. 211
manner, or similar to ; as, " Charity^^Bthe sun, brightens every object around it."
Somo authors conSidar //'fce, in theBH^Woxamplo, a preposition. This opinion is
gaining ground. Like, however, is an adoerb when used in coano •tion with as ;
but, in I'll ;h constructions, it is superfluous; a?, " L'ke as a father pit!'>th his chiU
dren ; so the Lord pitieth t'lem that fo ir him." Tliis sentence would l-ise nothins;
of its f.iroe and perspicuity by the omission of like. Tbus, " As a fith : pitioth his
children ; so the Lord pitieth them that fear him."
BOTH.
Author.'^ generally regard both as a conjunction when it is followed by and ; as,
" \W' as?i-ted him both for his sake and our own." {Smith's G fu/.i ir, page 109.)
The coniK'Ctive quality of 6(7i!A in such constructions is very a jubti :'. ; it is certain
it forms i;o connection of itself, and should, if regarded as a c .^ju;ict'on at all, be
parsed with and, as they form but one connection. Both and, in such constructions,
are nearly synonymous with /io< onZy but ; a,s, "We assisted h'in,/iot only fO|. his
sake, but also for our sake." Not only but in similar construct, ins, ra 'y ba regard-
ed as a correlative conjunction, as they form but one connection, and have a recip-
rocal relation to each other.
B )th is frequently used as a specifying adjective ; as, "Both men were badly in-
jured liy the fall." Bn'his also not uafrequently use! a? a siibii'.itute f,5r two nouns
used in the preceding clause ; as, •■ .V.i)raham took sheep and o'can, and gavo ihem
to .A.bimelech; both of them were made a covenant." Boti is som^-times used as a
substitute for two membars of a t^oni'nica ; as, • do wiU nor, bear ike 'os^ of his rank ,
because he can bear the loss of hif est its; b-u he will bear both be luse he is pr!-
X>>rad for both. In the I'.iilowuu' seutence. bjlh is a substitute for two adjivtives :
" Some are beautiful and otier-: pre young; bat .Mary is both" Uera both is evi-
dently a substitute for beautiful and young.
B UT.
But is used for three parts of speech.
It is a conjunction when it connects the members of a sentence; as, " He wrote
tb". deed, but he will write no more."
It is an adverb when used in the sense of only; as, "Our light afflictions are but
f.ir a moment " It is regarded generally by authors as a preposition when it
means (x<'ept or excepting ; as, " They were all well but the stranger," that is. they
were all well «xcep: the jt-anger. In examules like the last, Dr. Webster contends
that but is a participle, and it must be coulessed that the etj-mology of the word
favors his opinion.
AFTER AND BEFORE.
After is an adverb when it means time ; a/, " After I had visited Europe, I re-
turned to America." .^/^c' is frequently used in an implenary member ; as, " Af-
ter these things. Jesus drpnrted and went into Galilee." In such ropstructions, af-
ir.r \i generallv ) ,irsed a.s a preposition, but errnr.pously, as tvo tliink, as will be
feou by rendoryig the tentence plenary, »nd construing it in the natural orJ*r ; as,
'' Jesus departed alter these things bad occurred, and went into (i.ililee." After is
.1 preposition when it shows the relation of position ; as, "My soul foilowoth hard
after thee.''
Before is an adverb when it means time; as, " He had visited mo before." It
sh 'lid be observed that when before is thus used, it is generally a conjunctive ad-
verb, a member of a -sentence being understood. Before is a prepo.«ition when it
shows the relation of position or preference; as, "He stood before uie." "He was
preferred before ine."
Rem. — After .\nd before are frequently used by eood wri'ers for proposition.s,
>yhere they arn really adverbs- a.<, " Ho that c9meto after me is pr^'ferred before
me, {<y: he vraj before me." After in tho first member, and before in c I >^t mem-
ber, denote time, aiii are, therct'ore, pr^periy Mtlverbs ; thus, •• Hl h... cuiiieth alter
I came, is preferrcj beforome ; '•>r i' > was before I was."
Ttie .luthor doos not recommou'' his reau^ra to rrite and speak contrary to this
oaittom, but they should know whet is Englith and what is ou:<toDi.
2l2 ANAtTTSCAL, ItLl^STRATnTK Ajn>
THAT.
Taat is a relative when it can be changed to lirho or which without injuring tB»
sense; ss, "Him that is negligent reprove sharply " — changed, " Him icrho is negli-
gent reprove sharply.'' TTiat is frequently usod as a substitute for a clause which
fellows it in construction ; as, " I have heard that the Greeks djefeated the Turks ;"
here that is a substitute for " the Greeks defeated the Turks j" " the Greeks d«feat-
ed the Turks — I have heard that." That is sometimes used as a substitute for a
noun usad in a preceding clause; as, " For, by f^rnoe, ye are saved, through faith ,
ard that not of yourselves; for it is the gift of God;" — here thai is a substitute for
grace ; as, " By grace ye are saved, through faith, and that grace not of yourselves,"
etc. That is frequently used as a specifying adjective ; as, " TTiat thing that thai
m:>n said, should not be sepeated."
TAat, in the following sentence, is used as a notin, b,3 sl siibstitutc (or conjuao-
tion), as a relaiive pronoian, and as a specifying adjective. " The tutor speaking of
that, said that that that that that gentleman parsed, was not thaLthat that that
lady requested him to analyze."
MANY AND FEW.
Thongh mafii/ and fem are generally used as adjectives, they are not unfrequent-
ly empk'jed as substitutes; as, "Many are called; l>ut few are chosen." In this
sentence, 7»awi/ and /eu> are used as substitutes for many a,nd few persons. Th©
same may be predicated of many of the specifying adjectives of the numeral kind;
as, " Tlie soldiers marched two by two." This sentence, rendered plenary, will read
thus — " The soldiers marched in the order of two soldiers by two soldiers." The
truth is, almost any of the specifying adjectives may bo used as substitutes ; as,
"Some men labor, others labor not. The former increase in wealth ; the latter de-
crease." iVb«« is a contraction of no one; cctacquently its onginal and proper
meattingis singular: but custom has assigns! it a plico in both numbers ;,as,iYo«e-
performs his duty too well." " None of these poor wretehesj^complain of their
auserabla lot." In the first example, mne is singular, in the last, plural.
OWN.
'' He owns, and shall forever o'-vn.
Wisdom and heaven and Christ are one."
"We assisted him for his own sake." " He came unto his own and his awn re-
ceived him not" In the first of these examples, owns is a verb; in the second, a
specifying adjective ; and in the third, a suostituto for ou>« people ; aj, " He cam©-
iinto his own (people), but his own. (people) received him not."
ELSE.
Else, when used in the cense frf other things c?- other- persons, is a substitute or
pronoun ; as, " what ci^e could he have done ?" Yf hoa used in the sense of other-
■Kfise^, it is an adverb; as, " Else whence this longing after immortality .^"—iAai is, if
it be otherwise (if the soul be not imcaortal), whence this longing after immortality ?
Else is sometimes used as connective, though it still retains its adverbial oharac-
t«r; as, "Thou desirest not sacrifice, else would I giv&it."
MUCH.
;yit"t is- used as throe parts of speech. Much, in the first of the following ex-
ft.aple ) An adverb ; in the seeond, a.n adjective ; and, in the last e:j;ample, is »
»>i,un. V""ii ha»e your mother 7nuck offended." "I have taken TreucA pai.iS."
" V/hero -ttwA is given, 7/iucA is required."
NOTWITHSTANDING.
N TWi^TrsTANDiNG is .xsed as a prepositi'm. and also as a conjunction. In the first
of the following ex j.u!i/.es, it is a propo.sition, and in the second, a conjunction.
"He is n.glectedjw?tof£A«an(ii»^lii8 merii." " Be ia tespaoted, nctwith^tainddirg
he U poor."
COKSTRUCnVE GRAMMAR. 1 I ■->
SINCE.
Since, in tbo first of iho following examples, is a conjunction; in the Focond, n
preposition ; and in the third, an adverb. " 1 will go, since you dtsiro it." " lie
has been employed since that time." " Our friendship commenced long xincr."
WHAT.
What isu.'P'lns a substitute (relative) ; as. "Tie knows what ho eald." As .n
specifying adjective ; as, " What man is that ?" It is used as an adverb; as, " What
(partly) by entreaty, and what by threatening, he succeeded. In the following sui
tence, it is used as an interjection : "What! could ye not watch one hour ?" (Soo
Construction of What. Part I.)
EXPLANATION OF FRENCH WORDS AND PHRASES OF
FREQUENT OCCURRENCE.
" The followin::; French words and phrases are oft6T\ rnet
with in English -wTitcrs. They are here explained for the bene-
fit of those unacquainted with the French language. Inthe
following representation of French sounds, i h;t3 the sound of
a in hat ; a of a \\\*lade ; a of a m falls e of e in her ; e of «
in bed ; i of z in sit ; 8 of o in hot; o of o in lone ; u of w in
cure; oo of oo in coo. The French u, and eu, and oeu, have
no corresponding sounds in the English language, nor can thej.
he represented by letters ; the first is intermediate between o
and u, and is pronounced with the lips nearly closed (the up-
per projecting), leaving only a small hole in the middle, as if to
blow a flute ; this sound is here represented by u ; eu and oeu
are more full and open than u ; they are here represented by u ;
r is sounded hard lilvorr. The nasal vowels an, in, on, U7i, can-
not be represented by letters. The articulation of the w must
end when the tip of the tongue is at the root of the lower
teeth, without any motion towards the roof of the mouth. The
English syllables a7iy, aing, ong, ung, though not correct, arc
still the nearest representation of the sound that can be made
to the eye. Indeed, it is impossible by means of letters to rep-
resent the correct pronunciation of most French words. This
can be done only to the ear." The following, therefore, is
to be regarded only as the nearest that can be given. — {See
Bullion's Grammar.)
Aide-de-camp (aid-de-kang), an assistant to a general.
A la bonne heure (ri 13, bonn urr), at an early hour ; in the nick
of time.
Affaire de coeur, (alfair d<? kurr), a love aflair ; an amour.
2^
214 ANALYTICAL, ILLe81«ATIVB, AND
A la mode (S IS, mSd), according to the fashion.
Aliens (allbng), come, let us go.
Apropos (S^-prS-po), to the purpose ; opportunely.
Au fait (o fay), well acquainted with ; thoroughly versed in:
Au fond (6 fBng), to the bottom, or main point.
Auto-da-fe (o-to-d^-fS) — Portugese — burning of heretics.
Bagatelle (bagatell), a trifle.
Beau monde (bo mongd), the gay world; people of fashion.
Beaux esprits (boz espree) men of wit.
Billet doux (bee-ye doo), a love letter.
Bon mot (bong mo), a piece of wit ; a jest ; a quibble.
Bon ton (bong tong), in high fashion.
Bon gr^, mal gre (bong gr4, mal gr4), with a good or ill grace;
whether the party will or not. *
Bon jour (bong zhoor), good day.
B^doir (boo-d5-ar), a small aj^artment.
Canaille (cS-nS-ye), lowest of the people ; rabble ; mob.
Carte blanche (kart blangsh), a blank sheet of paper ; uncon-
ditional term.
Chateau (shS,-to), a country seat.
Chef d'oeuvre (she duvr), a master-piece.
■ Ci devant (see devang), formerly.
Comme il faut (kom il fo), as it should be.
Con amore (kon ^mora) — Italian — with love ; gladly.
Coup de grdce (koo de gr^ss), a stroke of m«rcy ; the finishing
stroke.
Coup de main (koo de maing), a sudden or bold enterprise.
Coup d'oeil (koo du-ee-ye), a quick glance of the ey©.
D'ailleurs (da-yurr), moreover ; besides.
Debut (da-bu) the beginning ; the lead ; first appearance.
Dernier ressort (dern-ya ressorr), the last shift or resource.
Depot (da-po), a store or magazine.
Double entendre, or double entente (dooble ang-tangdr), double
meaning.
Douceur (doos-surr), a present or bribe.
Dieu et mon droit (deeu a mong droah), God and my right.
Eclat (a-clS), splendid.
El eve (a-lSv), a pupil.
Elite (a-leet), choice ; prime ; of the better sort.
Embonpoint (ang-bong-pS-aing), in good condition ; jolly.
En flute (Sng flute), carrying guns on the upper deck only.
En masse (4ng mass), in a body or mass.
En passant (ang passang), by the way ; in passing.
Ennui (ang-nu-ee), wearisomeneBs.
Entree (ing-tra) ^ntwrnc*.
©ONSTRUCTIVE 6tAMM\R.
i'15
Faux pas (fo pS,), a slip ; misconduct.
Fete (fayte), a feast or entertainment.
Honi soit qui raal y pense (ho-nec soah kee mal ee pangee), evil
be to liim that evil thinks.
Hauteur (ho-turr), haughtiness.
Je ne sais qui (zhe ne say koah), € know not what.
Jeu de mOts (zlm de mo), a play upon words.
Jen d'esprit (zhue despree), a display of wit ; witticism.
Mal apropos (mSl S,-pr5-po), unfit; unreasonable.
Mauvaise honte (mo-vaze hongt.) unbecoming bashfulness.
Mot du guet (mo du ga), a watch word.
N'importe (naing port), it matters not.
Nous verrons (noo verrong), we shall see.
Outre (oo-tra), eccentric ; blustering ; not gentle.
Petit maitre (peti maitr), a beau ; a fop.
Pis allcr (pee zalla), a last resource.
Protege (prot-ta-zha), a person patronized and protected.
Recherche (re-shair-sha), rare ; scarce ; much sought after.
Rouge (roozhe), red, or a kind of red paint for the face.
Sang froid (sang fro-ah), cold blood ; indifference.
Sans x3ercmonie (sang seremonee), without ceremony.
Savant (sil- vang), a wise or learned man.
Soi-disant (soah-deezang), self-called ; pretended.
Tant raicux (tS,ng mee-u), so much the better.
Tapis (tH-pee), the carpet.
Trait (tray,) feature ; touch ; arras.
Tete a, tete (tate 3. tate), face to face ; a private conversation.
Tout ensemble (too tang-sdngbl), taken as a whole ; the o-cneral
appearance.
Unique (uneek), singular.
Valet-de-chambre (vale-de-shangbr) a chamber footman.
Vive le roi (veev le roah) long live the king.
EXPLANATION OF LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES
OF FREQUENT OCCURRENCE.
Ah initio, from the licjinniBg.
Ai urhe condita, from the building
of tke city (abbreviated thus : A.
U. 0.)
Ad captandum vulgut„ to ensnare
the vulgar.
Ad infinitum, to infinity.
Ad libitu7n, at pleasure.
Ad referendum, fur consideration.
Ad valorem, accordiag to value.
A fortiori, with stronger reason.
Alias, ttberwise.
ANAI>YTIOAL IXLUSTRATITE AND
Alihi, elsewhere.
Ahria maiei\ university benign ras-
tlu-r.
Aiif/llce, in English.
^Inuo do/nml, in the year oiour
Lord A. D.
A/1710 viimdi, in the year of tlie
woiKl A. M.
^1 pofteriorl, from the latter.
A priori, from the former, from
before, or from the cause.
Arcanum, a secret.
Arcana imperii, state secrets.
Arijtinientum ad Jwminem, au ap-
peal to the practices of the ad-
versary.
Durante piliacid, during pleasure.
Ergo, therefore.
Errata, errors — Erratum, an error.
Esto 2)ef2>etua, let it be perpetual.
Ex cathedra,, from the chair with au-
thority.
Excerjyia, extracts.
Efcmpli gratia, as for exaoiple, con-
tracted c. fj.
Ex otfiaio ofQcially, by virtue of office.
Ex parte, on one side.
Ex tempore, without prerneditation.
Fac simile, exact copy or resem-
blance.
Fiat, let it be done or made.
Flagrante hello, during hostilities.
Arpu7ne>il.inn ad judicium, an ap-
Gratis, for nothing.
Ilora fiigit, the hour, or time flics.
0, au *l''\j{y,jnanun gfii t^frcn-e, to err is human,
poal to the common sense pf j^.^-j^^jn the same place
inankind
Arpnii'mdum ad fidem, an appeal
to our taitb.
Anjnmentum ad populum, an ap-
peal to the people.
Arg^imeutum ad pasiiones, an ap-
peal to the passions.
Audi alteram partem, hear both
sides.
Bona fide, in good faith, in reality.
Contra, against.
Cacoethcs scribendi, an itch for wri
ting.
C<r,'<'/-2>7>i7r;"&;<5,other circumstaBces
l)eing equal.
Caput vLoriutim, the worthless re-
mains, dead head.
Compjos mentis, in one's senses.
Cum privilegio, with privileges.
Data, things granted.
De facto, from the fact, in reality.
De jure, from the law, justly.
Dei gratia, by the grace or favoi
of God
Deo volcnte, God willing (D. Y.)
Idem, the same.
Id est, that i?, contracted i. e.
Ignoramus, an ignorant fellow, a
dunce.
In loco, in this place.
In primis, in the first place.
In terrorem, as a warning.
In propria persona, in his own
person.
In statu quo, in the former state.
Inst., for instant, the present.
Ipse dixit, on his sole assertion.
Ipso facto, by the fact itself.
Ijjso jure, by the law itself.
Item, also, article.
Jure divine, by dirine right.
Jure liumano, by human law.
Jus gentium, the law of nations.
Locum tenens, deputy, substitute.
Labor omnia v/ncif, labor oveicome3
'everything.
Licentia rahim, a poetical license.
Linguce- lapsus, a slip of the tongue.
Magna churta, the great charter,
tiie basis of our laws and liberties.
Desunt cetera, the^rest are wanting.|j/-g^enio inori, remember death.
Desideratum, something desirable. Memorabilia, matters deserving of
a thing wanted. i record.
Dramatis p)?rsoii()e., characters rc^- Memorandum, a thing to be re-
resentec!. ^ • I mcmbcred. •
Ihirante vita, during life. ^Meum et luum, mine and thine.
CONSTRUCTIVE OBAlirMAR.
217
Multuvi in 2}arvOf much in little, a
great deal in a few words.
Muialis mutandis, the necessary
changes being made.
Miitaio nomine, the name being
changed.
HFetiio h^ imjmne lacesset, no one
shall provoke me with, impunity.
lie 2)h(S nlira, no farther, nothing
beyond. '
j\'^olc)is volens, willing or unwilling.
J\'on cojnpos mentis^ not of a sound
mind.
JVc quid nimis, too much of one
thing is good for nothing.
jyisi dominus frusira, unless the
Lord be with us all efforts are in
vain.
J}«em:eo7i. {{ot nemine contra dicente,)
non« opposing.
Kern. J is. (for nemine dissetitiente),
none disagreeing.
Omnibus, for all, a public conveyance.
Ore terms, from the mouth.
0 temporm, 0 mores, 0 the times, 0
the manners.
Omncs, all.
Onus, burden.
Passim, everywhere.
Fer se, by itself, alone.
Possi co'milatus, the powtr of the
countr}'.
Prima faeic, at first view tr at first
sight,
Primum mobile, the main spring.
Fro and con, for and aganist.
Pro bono publico, for the good of th«
public.
Pro loc4 et tempore, for the place and
time.
Pro re natu, for a special businesf .
Pro rege, lege, et grtge, for the king,
the cor»litution, and the people.
,_, ijr.lmo, with what mi«d.
^({<; jure, by v.'bat right.
Quoad, ns far as.
(Jvonddin, foimcrly, former.
Ixts publica, the commonwealth.
Pesvrgam, I shall rise again.
Pex, a king ; Regina, a queen.
Senatvs eonsult?ini, a decree of sen-
ate, (S. C.)
Seriatim, in regular order.
Sine die, without specifying any par-
ticular day.
Sine quanoii, and indispensable pre-
requisite or condition.
Statu quo, the state in which it was.
Sub pmna, under a penalty.
Sui generis, of its own kind, i. e., ,
singular.
Supra, above,
Sutnmum ionum, the chief good.
Tria juncta in uiw, three joined in
one.
Toties qutties, as often as.
Una voce, with one voice, unani-
mously.
Ultimus, the last (contr, ult.)
Utih dulci, the useful with the pleas-
ant.
Verbatim, word for word.
VernLS, against.
Vade ilccum, go with me ; a book fit
for being a constant companion.
Vale, farewell.
Via, by way of.
Vice, in the room of.
Vice versa, the reverce.
Vide, see (contr, v.)
Vide ut supra, see as above.
Vis poet ica, poetic genius.
Viva voce, orally, by the living voice.
Vox2)opuli, the voice of the people.
Vvlgo, commonly.
Vultvs est index animi, the counte-
nance is the index of the mind.
Vi)-i(f regina, long live the queen.
Vincct amor patriw, the love of our
country is the predominant feeling.
Sua cuiqu* volujttas, erpry one has
his own pleasures.
Sic transit gUria mundi, thus passes
away the glory of the world.
Rtspictjinem, look to the end.
Ecqaiescat in pace, may ke rest in
peace !
Quid nunc, what now ? applied to a
ncwi hunter.
Quantum mutatus ab illo, how
changed from what he once was !
Principiit obsta, oppose the first ap-
pearance of evil.
Poeta nascitur, nonft, nature, and
not study, must form a poet.
Peccavi, I hare sinned.
0 ! si sic omnia, 0 ! that he had al-
ways done, or spoken thus.
•2 is
A.N'ALYTirAL, ILLUSTRATIVE AND
Noscitur a sooiis, he is known by his
companions.
T^on omnia 2'>os^ivmvH dmues, we can-
not all of us do erf^rv thin^.
Ne sulor ■itlt.ra crejjidain, let not the
shoemaker go beyond hi-J last, ( r
meddle with what lie dues not un-
derstand.
Nemo morinlium omnlhus horths'ipit
no one. is wise at all time-;.
Ifedio tutissimus ■ibh, good will act
wise by iiteering a middle course.
Ignis fatuus, the meteor, or electri-
cal phenomenon called " will-o'-the-
wisp."
Fiat jicstitia, mat ccelum, let justice
be done, though the heavens fall.
De mortuis nil nisi honum, let noth-
■ ing be said of the dead but what is
favoral^le.
Domine, durige, 0 Lord^direct us !
Fas est et ah haste doceri, it is allow-
able to derive instruction even from
an enemy.
ABBREVIATIONS.
A. B. or I>. A. Artimu Baccalareus, bach-
elor of ar'^
A'lj. Av.} riive.
AJv. A(!voiU
Abp. Archbi.'^hop.
Acct Account.
A. C. J/Ue Christum, before Christ.
A. 1). A»7to Domini, year of our Lord.
AJni. Administrator.
Aduix. Administratrix.
jE. g. Exempli gratia, for example.
jEph. Ephesians.
iEsq. E.oquire.
Etc. Et cetera, and so forth.
lEx. Exodus.
jExr. Exi'cutor.
Feb. FebroJirj.
iPig. Figure.
;Fol. Folio.
Pr. French.
A M. Ante meridiem, before noon; or,F. U.S. Fellow of the Royal Society.
anno viiindi, yoar of the world ; or ar-[Gal. Gallatians.
tium nmgister, master of arts.
Anou. Aii"i)ymi)us.
Apr. April.
A. U. C. Anno urbis conditoe, the year of|Geo. George.
the buililing of tKi.' city (Rome ) jGov. Governor
Gall. Gallon.
Gen. Genesis ; general.
Gent. Gentleman.
Aug. AUfTUrt,
]{1. Barrel.
B. c. Ji '■>-?■ n> ht.
B. I> H jl-lor of divinity.
Be' i ''■ ' iiii'Mii.
Bp.'l!'':!' -'■
Caijt. I .," .. 1-
Chas. t 1 1.=.
G. or ccii*. Munlrcd.
Chron.«Clir:nic'e«
Co. Company ; couuly.
Col. Cl.loDPl.
Coll. Colli--'.
Cor. Coriuilii'.r.s.
Cr. Credit, '.r creditor.
Cwt. Ilun-^.-ol wirigbt.
D. (de.) Dei:ur(U.-<, penny.
D. D. Du.t.ir of uirinity.
Dec. Dfceiii^er.
Deg. Degri'o.
Dup. Deputy.
Deut. Deuttrono'vy.
Do. or ditto. The same.
Doz. Dozen.
Doct. Doctor.
Dwt. Pennyweight.
E. East.
Ecel. Eoclosiasles.
Ed. Ediior.
jHeb. Hebrews.
IHhd. Hogshead.
H. M. His or Her Majesty.
H. B. .M. His or Her Britannic Majesty.
I Hon. Honorable.
iHund. Hundred.
lb, Ibid, or Ibidem. In the same place.
Id, Idem. The same.
I. e. Id est, that is.
Incog. Incognito, unknown.
Inst. Instant, present, of this month.
[j^a. Isaiah.
Jan. January.
Jaa. James.
.Tosh- Joshua.
Jan. or Jr. Junior.
Kt. Kaiffht
Lam. Lamentations.
Lat. Latitude. .„ .
Lev. Leviticus. ■ ^^^i.^.'
Lieut. Lieutenant.
LL. B. Ligum Baccalaurens, Bachelor
of Laws.
LL. D. Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws.
Long. Longitude.
L. S. Lozus Sigilli, the place of the seal.
M. Mille, a thousand.
M. A. Master of Arts.
Maj. Major.
CO NSTRU CTI V r. r, R A %J M A K .
219
Mar. Marrh.
Matt. Matthew.
M. B. MedicitKB Baccalaureut, Bachelor
of Medicine.
M. D. MedicitKB Doctor, Doctor of Medi-
■ cine.
Messrs. Messieurs.
M. P. Member of Parliament.
Mr. Mister.
Mrs. Mistress.
M. S. Manuscript.
N. North.
N. B. Nota Benr., notice well.
N. K. Northeast.
Nem. Con. Neniiue Contradicerde, no one
opposing.
No. Number.
Nov. November.
N. P. New .style.
N. T. New Testament.
Num. Numbers.
N. W. Northwest.
Obt. Obedient.
Oct. October.
0. S. Old style. »
Oxon. Oxonia, Oxford.
Per cent. Pa- centum, by the hundred.
Pet. Peter.
PI. Plural.
P V. Post Merediem, after noon.
P. M. Post Master.
P. 0. Post Office.
Prob. Problem.
Prof. Professor.
Prop. Proposition.
P. S. Poet Scriptum, postscript.
Ps. Psalms.
Q. or Qu. Question.
Q. E. I). Quod rrat demonstrandum,
which was to he demnnstratoil.
Q. V. Quad vide, which see.
Qr. Quarter.
Qt. Quart.
Rev. Reverend ; Rpvelation.
R. N. Royal navy.
Hobt. Robert
Rt. Ri.sht honorable.
S. South.
Sec. Secret.? ry.
.^. E. .Soiithenst.
Sen. Sinior.
■"^ppt. Scp'embor.
Sq. Square.
St. Sair.t : Street.
S. T. P. Su'Ctfc IheoiogiUt doctor, doctor
of theology or divinity.
S. W. Soutbwe.Ht.
Thess. Thf.'saloni.ins.
Thos. ThuiTias.
Tr. Translator ; Trensuror.
Ult. Vlthno
U. S. United Stnte.s.
V or Vid. Vide, see.
Viz. Videlicet, to wit, namely.
Vol. Volume.
Vols. Volumes
Vs. Versii.< against.
W. West.
W. I. We.«t Indies.
Wk Week.
AVm. Wini;(m.
Yd. Yard.
Yds. Yards.
4to, Quarto.
8vo. Oetavo.
l2mo. Duodecimo.
I8mo. Octodecimo.
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